EGO | People , Places , Peges

Edit Page

Title

Url

Content

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" class="en text article">
	<head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
		<meta http-equiv="Access-Control-Allow-Origin" content="*">
		<meta http-equiv="Content-Security-Policy" content="upgrade-insecure-requests">
		<link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/img/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon">
		<link rel="icon" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/img/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon">
		<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/img/apple-touch-icon.png">
		
    
    <link rel="schema.DC" href="https://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/">
    <link rel="schema.DCTERMS" href="https://purl.org/dc/terms/"> 
  	<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1">
		
		<meta http-equiv="content-language" content="de">
		
    <meta name="description" content='Chloroform, telegraphy, steamships and precision rifles were among the "modern" features of the Crimean War (1853&#8211;1856). As the war was observed by numerous press reporters, illustrators and photographers, who sent their text and image reportage to the public back home, it can also be considered the first media war in history. Modern communications technologies enabled events to be reported on almost simultaneously. Reporting was therefore no longer a recording of completed processes after the event, but played an active role in shaping events. To satisfy illustrators and correspondents, both the military and civilian events of the war were carefully stage-managed by those in charge, which made the Crimean War aesthetically attractive, if not spectacular. Traditional historiography with its focus on written sources has thus far ignored this.'><meta name="copyright" content="IEG Mainz">
    
    <meta name="google-site-verification" content="MJGOUQy7My8Aecc8deyTY6HwXqOTYaGiuYJT_gKFf2Y">
    <meta property="fb:admins" content="100001928375895">
    <meta property="og:site_name" content="EGO | Europ&#228;ische Geschichte Online"> 
    <meta property="og:type" content="article"> 
    <meta property="og:email" content="egoredaktion@ieg-mainz.de">
    <meta property="og:phone_number" content="+49 6131 39 393 50">
    <meta property="og:fax_number" content="+49 6131 39 353 26">
    <link rel="alternate" href="https://twitter.com/statuses/user_timeline/234792826.rss" title="Tweets von EGO bei Twitter.com" type="application/rss+xml">
    <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="EGO" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/egosearch.xml">
		
		
		<meta name="application-url" content="https://www.ieg-ego.eu">
    <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://code.jquery.com/ui/1.9.1/themes/base/jquery-ui.css">
		<script type="text/javascript" src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.8.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
		<script type="text/javascript" src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jqueryui/1.9.1/jquery-ui.min.js"></script>
		<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/css_browser_selector.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/flowplayer-3.2.4.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
    <script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/carousel.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		<link rel="Stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/css/screen.css" media="screen, projection"> 
		<link rel="Stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/css/print.css" media="print">
    <link rel="Stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/css/carousel.css" media="screen, projection"> 
		<title>The Image of War: The Crimean War (1853&#8211;1856) &#8212; EGO </title>
	<meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="DC.Title" content="The Image of War: The Crimean War (1853&#8211;1856)"><meta name="DC.Source" content="EGO(http://www.ieg-ego.eu)"><meta name="DC.Date.Issued" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CTDF" content="2022-01-18"><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="WorldCathttp://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1292527108"><meta name="DC.Rights" content="CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works"><meta name="DC.Description" content="Chloroform, telegraphy, steamships and precision rifles were among the 'modern' features of the Crimean War (1853&#8211;1856). As the war was observed by numerous press reporters, illustrators and photographers, who sent their text and image reportage to the public back home, it can also be considered the first media war in history. Modern communications technologies enabled events to be reported on almost simultaneously. Reporting was therefore no longer a recording of completed processes after the event, but played an active role in shaping events. To satisfy illustrators and correspondents, both the military and civilian events of the war were carefully stage-managed by those in charge, which made the Crimean War aesthetically attractive, if not spectacular. Traditional historiography with its focus on written sources has thus far ignored this."><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="urn:nbn:de:0159-2022011704"><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" scheme="DCMIType"><meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" scheme="IMT"><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="generator" content="Plone - http://plone.com"></head>
	<body>
		<iframe id="manifest_iframe_hack" style="display: none;" src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/temporary_manifest_hack.html">
		</iframe> 
		<div id="wrapper" class="container container_9">
		<div id="header" class="grid_9">
			<ul id="topmenu" class="smalltype">
				<li class="first">
					<a href="/en/ego">About EGO</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/contact">Contact</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/impressum">Legal Details</a>
				</li>
				<li class="last">
					<a href="/en/ego/privacy">Privacy</a>
				</li>
			</ul>
			<ul id="languageselect" class="smalltype">
				<li class="first"><a href="/kelleru-2013-de?set_language=de&amp;-C=" title="Deutsch">Deutsch</a> |</li>
				<li class="last">English</li>
			</ul>
			<h1 id="sitelogo">
                <a href="/" title="Back to Homepage">
                    <img src="/_theme/img/EGO_logotype_en.png" width="174" height="43" alt="EGO - European History Online">
                </a>
            </h1>
			<ul id="mainmenu">
                <li class="first top">Thread<span class="arrowdown">&#9662;</span>
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/theories-and-methods">Theories and Methods</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/backgrounds">Backgrounds</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/crossroads">Crossroads</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes">Models and Stereotypes</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/europe-on-the-road">Europe on the Road</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/european-media">European Media</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/european-networks">European Networks</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/transnational-movements-and-organisations">Transnational Movements and Organisations</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/alliances-and-wars">Alliances and Wars</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/europe-and-the-world">Europe and the World</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
                <li class="top">Area<span class="arrowdown">&#9662;</span>
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=1&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="area included in the basins of the Danube, Elbe, and Rhine rivers">Central Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=0&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="Albania, Bulgaria, European part of Turkey, Yugoslavia">Balkan Peninsula</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=5&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="region extending from the western borders of Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and Slovenia eastward to the Ural Mountains">Eastern Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=2&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, &#197;land, the Faroe Islands, Jan Mayen and Svalbard, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania)">Northern Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=4&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Great Britain, Ireland">Western Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=3&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="Iberian Peninsula, Italian Peninsula, Southern Balkan Peninsula, Mediterranean States (Malta, Cyprus)">Southern Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=6&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Non-European World</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
                <li class="top">Topic<span class="arrowdown">&#9662;</span>
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=0&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Education, Sciences</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=1&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Arts</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=2&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Social Matters, Society</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=3&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Politics</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=4&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Law, Constitution</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=5&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Religion</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=11&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Military</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=6&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Migration, Travel</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=7&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Media, Communication</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=8&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Agents, Intermediaries</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=9&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Theory, Methodology</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=10&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Economy, Technology</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
				<li class="last top">Time<span class="arrowdown">&#9662;</span>
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1450+OR+1460+OR+1470+OR+1480+OR+1490&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">15th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1500+OR+1510+OR+1520+OR+1530+OR+1540+OR+1550+OR+1560+OR+1570+OR+1580+OR+1590&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">16th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1600+OR+1610+OR+1620+OR+1630+OR+1640+OR+1650+OR+1660+OR+1670+OR+1680+OR+1690&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">17th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1700+OR+1710+OR+1720+OR+1730+OR+1740+OR+1750+OR+1760+OR+1770+OR+1780+OR+1790&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">18th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1800+OR+1810+OR+1820+OR+1830+OR+1840+OR+1850+OR+1860+OR+1870+OR+1880+OR+1890&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">19th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1900+OR+1910+OR+1920+OR+1930+OR+1940+OR+1950+OR+1960+OR+1970+OR+1980+OR+1990&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">20th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=2000+OR+2010&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">21st Century</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
			</ul>
			<div id="quicksearch">
                <form method="get" action="/search">
                    <fieldset>
                        <input id="qs_query" class="searchPage" type="text" name="SearchableText" data-alt="Search" value="Search"><input class="submit" type="submit" name="submit" value=" ">
                        <input type="hidden" name="portal_type" value="Site">
                        <input type="hidden" name="Title" value="freigabe">
                        <input type="hidden" name="set_language" value="en">
                    </fieldset>
                </form>
				<p><a id="advancedsearch" class="smalltype" href="/advanced_search?set_language=en">Advanced Search</a></p>
			</div>
        </div> 
		<div class="clear">&#160;</div>
		<div id="main">
			<div id="side" class="grid_2 hyphenate">
				
			<ul id="threadnavigation" class="navTree navTreeLevel0">
                <li class="navTreeItem navTreeTopNode nav-section-alliances-and-wars">
                    <p>
                        <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars" title="" class="contenttype-folder">
                            
                            <span>Alliances and Wars</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    <ul>

<span>Alliances and Treaties</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                        <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel1">

<span>Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-alan-sharp-collective-security">

<span>Collective Security</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-inken-schmidt-voges-european-peace-processes-in">

<span>Peace Processes in the Pre-Modern Era</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-andrew-thompson-the-grand-alliances">

<span>The Grand Alliances</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-philip-martin-rink-transfer-of-military">

<span>Transfer of Military Organizations and Institutions</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-douglas-carl-peifer-transfer-of-military-and-naval">

<span>Transfer of Military Technology</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>

</ul>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeItemInPath selected expanded navTreeFolderish section-war-as-an-agent-of-transfer">

<span>War as an Agent of Transfer</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                        <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel1">

<span>Civil Military Relations</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeFolderish section-conscription">

<span>Conscription</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                        <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel2">

<span>Lev&#233;e en Masse</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>

</ul>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeCurrentNode selected expanded this section-ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war">

<span>Crimean War</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-christian-goetter-the-first-world-war-as-a-media">

<span>First World War</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-kriegsberichterstattung-kriegsberichterstatter">

<span>Kriegsberichterstattung, Kriegsberichterstatter</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-olaf-peters-krieg-und-nachkrieg-zur-aesthetischen">

<span>Krieg und "Nachkrieg"</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-sibylle-scheipers-prisoners-and-detainees-in-war">

<span>Prisoners in War</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeFolderish section-religionskriege">

<span>Religionskriege*</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                        <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel2">

<span>Die Franz&#246;sischen Religionskriege als Medienereignisse</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-religionskriege-1500-1648-religionskriege-be">

<span>Religionskriege*</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>

</ul>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-frederick-c-schneid-the-french-revolutionary-and">

<span>Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-a-w-purdue-the-transformative-impact-of-world-war">

<span>World War II</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>

</ul>
                    
                
            </li>
        
            <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeFolderish section-warfare-1450-1789">

<span>Warfare (1450&#8211;1789)</span>
                        </a>
                    </p>
                    
                
            </li>

</ul>
                </li>
            </ul>
        </div>
			<div id="content" class="grid_5">
	<h1><span id="parent-fieldname-title" class="hyphenate">The Image of War: The Crimean War (1853&#8211;1856)</span></h1>
	<div class="documentByLine" id="document-byline">
    <span class="property documentAuthor">
			<span class="de">von </span>
			<span class="en">by </span>
    Ulrich Keller<span></span></span>
		<span class="property documentLanguage"><span class="de">Original auf</span><span class="en">Original in</span> <span id="originallanguage_top">German</span>,
		<span class="de">angezeigt auf</span><span class="en">displayed in</span> <span id="articlelangselector"><a href="" id="articlelanguage_top">English</a><ul id="avllist"><li><a href="/kelleru-2013-de"><span class="languagename_short">de</span><span class="languagename"><span class="de">Deutsch</span><span class="en">German</span></span></a></li><li><a href="/kelleru-2013-en"><span class="languagename_short">en</span><span class="languagename"><span class="de">Englisch</span><span class="en">English</span></span></a></li></ul></span><span class="arrowdown">&#9662;</span></span>
 		<br>
  	<span class="documentModified">
			<span class="en">Published</span><span class="de">Erschienen</span>: 
			<span id="dateselector">
				<span id="publicationsdate_top" href="#">2022-01-18</span>
				<ul id="datelist" class="select-popup"></ul>
			</span>
		</span> 
		<a class="printthis" onclick="window.print(); return false;" href="#">
			<img class="en" src="/_theme/img/print_12x12.png" alt="Print" title="Print">
			<img class="de" src="/_theme/img/print_12x12.png" alt="Drucken" title="Drucken">
		</a>
  	
  	<span id="emailauthorlink"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/author/kelleru"><img class="en" alt="E-mail" src="/_theme/img/mail_12x12.png" title="E-mail the author"><img class="de" alt="E-mail" src="/_theme/img/mail_12x12.png" title="E-Mail an den Autor"></a>
		</span>
  	<a id="dcexport" class="xmlexport link-trailing-slash" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856/dcexport"><img class="en" src="/_theme/img/xml_12x12.png" alt="XML Metadata" title="save metadata as XML"><img class="de" src="/_theme/img/xml_12x12.png" alt="XML Metadaten" title="Metadaten als XML speichern">
		</a>
    &#160;&#160;
		
  	<span id="form-widgets-shorttitle" style="display:none">Crimean War</span>
	</div>
  <p class="documentDescription">
    <span id="parent-fieldname-description" class="hyphenate">Chloroform, telegraphy, steamships and precision rifles were among the "modern" features of the Crimean War (1853&#8211;1856). As the war was observed by numerous press reporters, illustrators and photographers, who sent their text and image reportage to the public back home, it can also be considered the first media war in history. Modern communications technologies enabled events to be reported on almost simultaneously. Reporting was therefore no longer a recording of completed processes after the event, but played an active role in shaping events. To satisfy illustrators and correspondents, both the military and civilian events of the war were carefully stage-managed by those in charge, which made the Crimean War aesthetically attractive, if not spectacular. Traditional historiography with its focus on written sources has thus far ignored this.</span>
  </p>
  <dl class="portlet toc" id="document-toc">
		<dt class="portletHeader"><span class="de">Inhaltsverzeichnis</span><span class="en">Table of Contents</span></dt>
  	<dd class="portletItem"></dd>
	</dl>
  <div id="parent-fieldname-text" class="hyphenate"> <div id="articlebody">
            <div class="fieldErrorBox"></div>
            <span id="tableOfContents" data-toc="true"></span>
            <h2>Introduction</h2>
<p>Though the Crimean War of 1853 to 1856 was gruesome and bloody, it was also colourful and visually fascinating. Its aesthetic appeal at the dawn of modernity was not only captured by traditional artistic genres in aristocratic palaces (chiefly large-sized history paintings by reputed artists), but also by new <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/media-genres/juergen-wilke-media-genres" title="Media Genres">image media</a> such as photography, lithography and newspaper illustrations, which brought images of the war to broad sections of the population that had scarcely participated in visual culture up to that point. Surprisingly though, this conflict in the Near East more than 150 years ago has left few traces in the European memory of <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4039677-0">central Europe</a></span>. <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/russification-sovietization/theodore-r-weeks-russification-sovietization" title="Russification / Sovietization">Russia</a> had triggered hostilities by occupying the <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/from-the-turkish-menace-to-orientalism/markus-koller-ottoman-history-of-south-east-europe" title="Ottoman History of South-East Europe">northwest region</a> (present day <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4050939-4">Romania</a></span> and <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4008866-2">Bulgaria</a></span>) of the declining <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4075720-1">Ottoman empire</a></span>, and numerous states soon became involved. <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4014770-8">Britain</a></span> and <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4018145-5">France</a></span> were concerned about their interests in the Mediterranean. They entered an alliance with <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/35254696" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Sultan Abd&#252;lmecit I (1823&#8211;1861)">Sultan Abd&#252;lmecit I (1823&#8211;1861)</a> and sent an expeditionary army to <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4107573-0">Varna</a></span> on the <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4053794-8">Black Sea</a></span>. Tsar <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/54414260" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Nicholas I of Russia (1796&#8211;1855)">Nicholas I (1796&#8211;1855)</a> immediately withdrew his troops from Ottoman territory, but the middle-class newspapers, fuelled by popular anti-Russian sentiments pervading Britain, forced Queen <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95738652" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Victoria of Great Britain (1819&#8211;1901)">Victoria (1819&#8211;1901)</a> and her government into a war that they did not want. <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88934487" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Napoleon III of France (1808&#8211;1873)">Napoleon III (1808&#8211;1873)</a>, on the other hand, saw the campaign against <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4076899-5">Russia</a></span> as a chance for France to regain its position as a European Great Power, which it had lost in 1815.</p>
<p>After a period of waiting around the Danube delta, the Franco-British expeditionary corps of about 58,000 men was sent to the <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4033166-0">Crimean peninsula</a></span> in September 1854 with orders to take the Russian navy port of <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4054673-1">Sevastopol</a></span>, blow up the docks there, and then vacate the Crimea again, as it would have been militarily difficult to hold it for a long period of time across thousands of miles of supply lines. The manoeuvre was supposed to take just a few days. However, in spite of spectacular victories in the initial engagements, the allies were drawn into an extended siege of Sevastopol, with the opposing armies in a stalemate over the course of the entire winter. Over these months, almost the entire British army died &#8211; not as a result of enemy fire, but from hunger, cold and cholera, because the aristocratic British officers looked the part on their horses, but did not have much of an understanding of organizing supply chains and had not organized any medical care worth talking about. It was only after warm weather had returned and the French army had been beefed up to 130,000 soldiers that the tide turned in favour of the allies. In total, it took a year and at least 300,000 casualties to achieve the limited war aim of taking Sevastopol, which finally fell during a bloody attack on 8 September 1855. The Crimean War claimed nearly 800,000 human lives in total.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_0_marker1"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_0">1</a></sup></span></p>
<p>It would nonetheless be of little interest today if it was not the first "modern" war in history, in which precision rifles, steamships and chloroform were used. Generals were already sending their orders to the trenches by <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/news-distribution/andreas-wuergler-national-and-transnational-news-distribution-1400-1800" title="National and Transnational News Distribution 1400&#8211;1800">telegraph</a>, and ammunition was brought to the front by <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/transport-and-travel/anette-schlimm-transport-and-travel" title="Transport and Modes of Transport / Travel">railway</a>. British historiography, which for a long time focused on epic depictions of battles, was slow to take note of these modern elements, giving them at best marginal attention. This was even more true of aspects of the war that involved aesthetic means. These were the mass of optical signals and images that gave the Crimean War a visually unique character in the eyes of contemporaries. By focusing on written sources, historians have for a long time ignored the visual legacy of the Crimean War, creating the impression that the latter did not belong to the primary layer of historical actions and reality, but was instead a delayed mirror reflection and cosmetic adornment. However, a comprehensive viewing of these image sources shows that aesthetics was a <em>functional</em> component of the war and thus contributed to the historical end result. In many regards, this aestheticization of the events of the war was the most modern aspect of the Crimean campaign.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_1_marker2"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_1">2</a></sup></span></p>
<p>But we need to define more precisely what we mean by "image sources". In the early modern period, history painting and, increasingly, printed images (chiefly wood engraving, copper engraving and lithography), which could be disseminated more widely in the form of single sheets or occasionally as newspaper supplements, were responsible for the visual communication of historical events, and these were primarily aimed at exclusive circles of notables. There was no expectation that the artist would have been an eyewitness to the events depicted, and history paintings typically appeared years or even decades after the events they depicted. They did not, therefore, affect the course of events, but instead performed a commemorative function after the event. However, the increasing acceleration of historical processes undermined the relevance of the genre, and during the course of the 19th century history painting was increasingly replaced by newspaper illustrations, though traditional forms of historical depiction continued to exist as a marginal phenomenon. In any case, the emergence of newspaper reporting represented a dramatic change in the modalities of mediating and therefore of producing history (in its dual meaning of historical action and historical narration). Instead of the slow temporal rhythms of preceding centuries, which were defined by the agrarian economy and feudal rule, <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/technology/marcus-popplow-technology" title="Technology">technology</a> and <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/industrialization/richard-h-tilly-industrialization-as-an-historical-process" title="Industrialization as an Historical Process">industry</a> now set the tempo of history and enabled the virtual simultaneity of event and dissemination. Adapting the dissemination of pictorial news to this tempo was initially a problem. But with the help of new means of transportation (railway) and <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/the-book-market/ernst-fischer-the-book-market" title="The Book Market">printing techniques</a> (wood engraving), from 1842 weekly newspapers such as the <em>Illustrated London News</em>, <em>L'Illustration</em> of Paris and the Leipzig <em>Illustrirte Zeitung</em>, and from the 1880s daily newspapers were able to make visual information available to a broad middle-class public. Subsequently, various "low-brow" genres of verbal and visual communication diverged from high literature and high art.</p>
<p>At the same time, higher standards of factual accuracy and authenticity emerged. Blunt propaganda in the service of the ruler, which had characterized publications in the past, was challenged by a middle-class press that understood itself as impartial and bound by norms of objectivity, even if in practice it had its own ideological biases. And while the ceiling paintings of <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/the-versailles-model/thomas-hoepel-the-versailles-model" title="The Versailles Model">Versailles</a> could only be viewed by an exclusive circle of courtiers and ambassadors, press reporting sought to enable the whole nation to participate in the historical process. It goes without saying that these new modalities for disseminating history (simultaneity, authenticity, public participation) transformed the structure of the historical events themselves. Press coverage did not report on processes that were over, but on processes that were ongoing and were open to contemporary intervention. Ultimately, press illustration introduced a <em>cosmetic</em> imperative into history. Anyone who was shaping historical events now had to be mindful of how his actions would be perceived by the public as an illustration on a newspaper page. Thus, the careful visual staging of important events for the benefit of artists and press illustrators became a high priority for the country&#8217;s political leadership.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_2_marker3"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_2">3</a></sup></span></p>
<p>Modernity in communications emerged initially in <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079215-8">western Europe</a></span> and <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042483-2">north America</a></span>. Consequently, the discussion below focuses on the visual mediation of the Crimean War events in Britain and France, which were close allies, but formed completely different "visual cultures". In the context of weak <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/political-spaces/robert-von-friedeburg-state-forms-and-state-systems-in-modern-europe" title="State Forms and State Systems in Modern Europe">central state</a> structures in Britain, the aristocracy and the middle classes had worked out an "historical compromise," as a similar arrangement came to be called decades later in Italy. That is to say, the partners agreed not to interfere in the other&#8217;s primary sphere of interest, the resolution of conflicts being left to parliament and the <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/law/martin-otto-law" title="Law">judicial system</a>. During the resulting legal battles, in the course of the 18th century an impartial press emerged that was committed to standards of fact that could be vindicated in court instead of fiction, and proof instead of slander. From the late 18th century on, the resulting legal battles prompted the emergence of an impartial press committed to court-proof facts instead of slanderous accusations. Newspapers thus strengthened&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/copy_of_civil-society/dieter-gosewinkel-civil-society" title="Civil Society">civil coexistence</a> in spite of all the tensions between social groups, and as privately owned capitalist companies they were not subject to state censorship, either.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_3_marker4"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_3">4</a></sup></span> During the Crimean War, this resulted in a rich and varied press coverage in a broad <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/anglophilia/klaus-dieter-ertler-moral-weeklies-periodical-essays" title="Moral Weeklies (Periodical Essays)">spectrum of newspapers</a> that was at times critical of the government. France, by contrast, was a tightly-organized centralized state. Through a series of revolutions, a succession of social groups had seized the machinery of political power and governance, and had lost control of it again. The respective ruler ruled by repressive means, including censorship of the press, and as the production of art was also organized by the centralized state, the exhibitions of the Acad&#233;mie des Beaux-Arts at the Paris Salon and the purchase of huge history paintings by the state were cornerstones of French pictorial culture. Due to state <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/censorship-and-freedom-of-the-press/juergen-wilke-censorship-and-freedom-of-the-press" title="Censorship and Freedom of the Press">censorship</a>, underdeveloped press entrepreneurship and the political exploitation of academic painting, press illustration only played a subordinate role in France.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_4_marker5"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_4">5</a></sup></span></p>
<h2>New Pictorial Media</h2>
<h3>The Newspaper Illustration</h3>
<p>The British press had already sent a number of reporters and a 'special artist' to the Black Sea region in the summer of 1854, but initially not much happened in military terms that was worth depicting, and transport problems hampered journalistic efficiency. But as the conflict shifted to the Crimea in September, there were largescale troop movements and land battles, which could be easily observed by illustrators and reporters, and reported to the audience back home with patriotic enthusiasm. This is an authentic eyewitness sketch of the <em>Charge of the Light Brigade<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-turkische-hilfstruppen-tragen-die-kranken-britischen-soldaten-nach-balaklava-1854" title="Turkish Auxiliary Troops Carrying Sick British Soldiers to Balaclava, 1854"><img alt="Der Angriff der Leichten Brigade 1854 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/der-angriff-der-leichten-brigade-1854-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Der Angriff der Leichten Brigade 1854 IMG"></a></em>, which quickly gained legendary status. The sketch was sent to the <em>Illustrated London News</em> by <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/55463100" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Constantin Guys (1802&#8211;1892)">Constantin Guys (1802&#8211;1892)</a>. Cavalry battles at the front and the vibrant life of the people behind the front initially gave the coverage the flavour of living narrative, which did not contradict government reports and which hardly stood out from the flood of colourful, embellished battle depictions in painting and lithograph that soon hit the market. However, the catastrophic winter months when the British army died in the trenches outside Sevastopol &#8211; not through enemy fire, but due to hunger and cold &#8211; made painting and sketching redundant. Only one or two special artists continued to report and through their harrowing illustrations began to play a critical role that was without competition or precedence. The fall of the British government in January 1855 was due to a press campaign initiated by <em>The Times</em> of London, with the <em>Illustrated London News</em> contributing a number of dramatic illustrations of troops freezing in the trenches and one of a soldier in a military hospital who had had his leg amputated.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-szene-im-militarhospital-in-haslar-1855" title="Scene in the Military Hospital in Haslar, 1855"><img alt="Szene im Milit&#228;rhospital von Haslar 1855 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/szene-im-militaerhospital-von-haslar-1855-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Szene im Milit&#228;rhospital von Haslar 1855 IMG"></a> In this way, the coverage made the suffering of the British army in the Crimea a public event. It should therefore be stressed that &#8211; contrary to the view of traditional historiography &#8211; newspaper illustrations were not passive depictions of processes that were unfolding independently of them, but were actively involved in the production of history.</p>
<p>The fact that the illustrated press was itself among the historical actors is demonstrated by the fact that its pictorial attacks on the government in the domestic press were met with defensive measures from the authorities. Queen Victoria decided soon after the intervention of the <em>Illustrated London News</em> to do a series of visits to military hospitals, which were publicized throughout the country by means of press illustrations.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-ihre-majestat-im-hospital-von-brompton-1855" title="Her Majesty at the Hospital of Brompton, 1855"><img alt="Ihre Majest&#228;t im Hospital von Brompton 1855 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/ihre-majestaet-im-hospital-von-brompton-1855-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ihre Majest&#228;t im Hospital von Brompton 1855 IMG"></a> The decimation of the British army outside Sevastopol, which was condemned as a disgrace in liberal newspapers, was pushed into the background by the positive publicity of the appearances of the queen. The nation came to appreciate that the soldiers had died for throne and altar, and this made an important contribution to defusing the government crisis, which at times was rather dangerous. The polyphonic, competing use of illustrations in this way, which allowed opposing groups within society to air their political differences in full-scale pictorial battles, was a historical first.</p>
<p>For its Crimean coverage, the <em>Illustrated London News </em>depended mainly on the former French cavalry officer Constantin Guys, who had made a name for himself in <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4044660-8">Paris</a></span> with brilliant sketches of life in the big city from the <em>fl&#226;neur</em> perspective, which <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/17218730" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charles Baudelaire (1821&#8211;1867)">Charles Baudelaire (1821&#8211;1867)</a> had commented upon with great enthusiasm. However, the <em>Illustrated London News</em> expected him to act as a factual reporter rather than a "historien des m&#339;urs" &#8211; the British press was not interested in subjective impressions but in impartial, incontrovertible pictorial documents.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_5_marker6"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_5">6</a></sup></span> Many feverishly scribbled drawings made in the heat of battle attest to Guys' having been personally present, and witnessed events first hand. With the caption "Taken on the spot", Guys certified the historical authenticity of one sketch, which recorded the wounded General <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/17213989" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Franc&#807;ois Certain de Canrobert (1809&#8211;1895)">Franc&#807;ois Certain de Canrobert (1809&#8211;1895)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-general-canrobert-in-der-schlacht-von-inkerman" title="General Canrobert in the Battle of Inkerman">[<img alt="General Canrobert in der Schlacht von Inkermann 1854 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/general-canrobert-in-der-schlacht-von-inkermann-1854-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="General Canrobert in der Schlacht von Inkermann 1854 IMG">]</a><strong> </strong>smoking a cigar at the Battle of <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4318421-2">Inkerman</a></span>. It was these journalistic illustrations and not the photographs of <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/66536514" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Roger Fenton (1819&#8211;1869)">Roger Fenton (1819&#8211;1869)</a> that suggested the historically new quality of actuality unembellished by art or fiction. As the winter of 1854/1855 set in, bringing heavy losses for the British army, the experienced cavalryman and reporter Guys was the only 'special artist' to be found at the front, where among other things he captured the emergency transports of wounded British soldiers to the supply harbour of <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/16040322-4">Balaclava</a></span>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-turkische-hilfstruppen-tragen-die-kranken-britischen-soldaten-nach-balaklava-1854" title="Turkish Auxiliary Troops Carrying Sick British Soldiers to Balaclava, 1854"><img alt="T&#252;rkische Hilfstruppen tragen die kranken britischen Soldaten nach Balaklava 1854 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/tuerkische-hilfstruppen-tragen-die-kranken-britischen-soldaten-nach-balaklava-1854-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="T&#252;rkische Hilfstruppen tragen die kranken britischen Soldaten nach Balaklava 1854 IMG"></a> The endless misery captured in these illustrations shocked the <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/john-childs-barracks-and-conscription-civil-military-relations-in-europe-from-1500" title="Barracks and Conscription: Civil-Military Relations in Europe from 1500">readership back home</a>. Among the concrete military effects of this extraordinary coverage &#8211; that went beyond merely reflecting events &#8211; was the fact that the British army was considerably better supplied during the second winter of the war and, consequently, did not sustain such heavy losses.</p>
<p>In spite of censorship, there were also fact-based newspaper illustrations in France, as the work of <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/2623693" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Henri Durand-Brager (1814&#8211;1879)">Henri Durand-Brager (1814&#8211;1879)</a> for <em>L'Illustration</em> shows. As a naval officer, he was primarily engaged in reconnoitring the enemy. His drawings of Russian coastal installations<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-franzosische-grabenstellung-vor-der-masten-bastion-1855" title="French Trenches in Front of the Masten Redoubt, 1855"><img alt="Franz&#246;sische Grabenstellung vor der Masten-Bastion 1855 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/franzoesische-grabenstellung-vor-der-masten-bastion-1855-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Franz&#246;sische Grabenstellung vor der Masten-Bastion 1855 IMG"></a> and the static warfare around Sevastopol were made for the military, but some of them were passed on to the illustrated press along with anecdotal accounts of life in camp. There can scarcely be any doubt about the objectivity of his quasi-military intelligence depictions of the front, but they also display the limitations of purely factual pictorial reporting. As a visual source on the multifaceted reality of the war, they say very little. Important social aspects of the war are lost among the many technological and topographical details.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_6_marker7"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_6">7</a></sup></span></p>
<p>In France, objective reporting had not yet become established as a <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/journalism/juergen-wilke-journalism" title="Journalism">journalistic genre</a>, which is why Durand-Brager clarified a number of times that he did not see himself as a "historien des m&#339;urs" and did not claim to be creating art: "What I do belongs in the realm of history, not of imagination".<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_7_marker8"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_7">8</a></sup></span> In spite of this, his illustrations &#8211; particularly during the second winter of the war (1855/1856) &#8211; obscured more than they revealed. At that point, Sevastopol had been captured and just had to be held until the conclusion of peace, which was imminent. But the French troops, who now numbered in the six figures, lived crammed together in wet and unhygienic dug-outs. These catastrophic conditions offered Durand-Brager plenty of material for a startling expos&#233; &#224; la Guys. It is unclear whether he made efforts in this direction, but, if he did, they were blocked by censorship. It is highly ironic that at the same time as a major cholera and typhus epidemic in the French camp, which <em>L'Illustration</em> made no reference to in either word or image, the publication instead carried a series of humorous contributions under the title "Types et physionomies de l'arm&#233;e d'Orient".<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-typen-und-physiognomien-in-der-orient-armee" title="Types and Physiognomies in the Army of the Orient"><img alt="Typen und Physiognomien in der Orient-Armee 1856 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/typen-und-physiognomien-in-der-orient-armee-1856-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Typen und Physiognomien in der Orient-Armee 1856 IMG"></a> The series had similarities with the contemporary genre of the army novel, which was promoted by the government to improve the image of the army, which had suffered as a result of <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/frederick-c-schneid-the-french-revolutionary-and-napoleonic-wars" title="The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars">Waterloo</a>.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_8_marker9"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_8">9</a></sup></span></p>
<h3>Photography</h3>
<p>The Crimean War was the first large war event that was captured photographically, though strictly speaking the camera was not yet an instrument of news reporting in 1854/1855. As the exposure time was still about ten seconds, it could not capture the event itself, but only its material remnants and group photographs of participants arranged afterwards. In spite of the plausible claim to be more faithful to the truth than a pen or a paintbrush, photography proved to be just as limitlessly manipulable and, in spite of its supposedly democratic and egalitarian character, also displayed an incredible closeness to the government line in its reporting.</p>
<p>As Roger Fenton, photographer to Queen Victoria, appeared in the Crimea in March 1855 with a royal letter of recommendation, he was pursuing two very traditional aims outside of newspaper reporting, which painters and engravers of military subjects have always devoted themselves to.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_9_marker10"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_9">10</a></sup></span> Firstly, he was interested in capturing a topographical overview of the theatre of war, starting with a few photographs of the crammed supply port of Balaclava and moving from there to the British camp outside of Sevastopol. This included the mortar battery<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-ein-ruhiger-tag-in-der-morserbatterie-1855" title="A Quiet Day at the Mortar Battery, 1855"><img alt="Ein ruhiger Tag in der M&#246;rserbatterie 1855 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/ein-ruhiger-tag-in-der-moerserbatterie-1855-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ein ruhiger Tag in der M&#246;rserbatterie 1855 IMG"></a>, which was popular with tourists. As it was located far behind the trenches and out of range of Russian artillery, it offered a good view of the besieged city from a safe distance. The second aim of his trip, which he clearly viewed as more important, was to produce a portrait series of the British general staff outside of Sevastopol<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-oberstleutnant-hallewell-nach-getaner-arbeit" title="Lieutenant-Colonel Hallewell Relaxing after the Day"><img alt="Oberstleutnant Hallewell nach getaner Arbeit IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/oberstleutnant-hallewell-nach-getaner-arbeit-1854-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Oberstleutnant Hallewell nach getaner Arbeit IMG"></a>, who lived very comfortably far from the front as befitted their aristocratic status. Only one single nameless private was included in this illustrious assortment, in order to display the British marching uniform. If Fenton had photographed the officers <em>after</em> the end of the war, they would have scarcely looked any different, and it can be proved that about one tenth of his Crimean portraits were in fact taken after the war back in London. Taking portraits was thus at the heart of Fenton's mission to Crimea. The affluent art dealer and publisher Thomas Agnew (1794&#8211;1871) in <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4037286-8">Manchester</a></span> had financed the journey, in order to have the resulting portraits "translated" into a lucrative painting by <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95727453." rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas Jones Barker (1815&#8211;1882)">Thomas Jones Barker (1815&#8211;1882)</a>.</p>
<p>With his cumbersome darkroom wagon, which required six artillery horses to pull it through the morass of the Crimea, it was clear from the start that Fenton would not be able to advance to the trenches. After all, this would have been dangerous because there was shooting and death at the trenches. However, among the countless portraits and landscapes that he photographed far from the actual events of the war, he does appear to have photographed one event of genuine military significance, albeit far from the shooting. The caption unambiguously reads <em>The Council of War on the day of the taking of the Mamelon Quarries<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-der-kriegsrat-am-morgen-der-einnahme-der-mamelon-bastion" title="The Council of War on the Morning of the Taking of the Mamelon Redoubt"><img alt="Der Kriegsrat am Morgen der Einnahme der Mamelon-Bastion IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/der-kriegsrat-am-morgen-der-einnahme-der-mamelon-bastion-1855-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Der Kriegsrat am Morgen der Einnahme der Mamelon-Bastion IMG"></a></em> &#8211; but this is not so. Admittedly, there was a military council to plan the storming of the enemy redoubt, but it occurred three days previously and was attended by 17 officers, primarily artillery officers and engineers. This too is an indication of the "modernity" of the Crimean War.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_10_marker11"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_10">11</a></sup></span> Fenton's photograph proves that the heads of the three armies also met among themselves, but according to his correspondence it happened 24 hours <em>before</em> the attack. This means that they made themselves available to the royal photographer briefly for the purposes of media "window dressing" and willingly allowed him to photograph and portray them as a "war council". It can be assumed that they returned to their actual military problems as quickly as possible. But they nonetheless cooperated with the camera during a critical phase in the campaign. This is a good example of the <em>cosmetic</em> imperative already referred to, which not even supreme commanders could escape from in the middle of a war.</p>
<p>It seems very likely that Fenton arrived in the Crimea with a list of all of the members of the general staff and tried his best to work his way through it. The resulting portrait series was sold at the very high price of 63 pounds sterling, which would only have been affordable for the wealthy. Doubtlessly it was aimed primarily at the families of the officers photographed. These families were not in the least interested in photographs of the death or wounding of their loved ones, which explains why Fenton did not record scenes of this kind, though he would have witnessed many such scenes.</p>
<p>As Fenton ran out of negatives and suffered health problems, he left the theatre of war in July 1855, two months before the fall of Sevastopol. It therefore fell to the team of photographers <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/100296388" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="James Robertson (1813&#8211;1888)">James Robertson (1813&#8211;1888)</a> and <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95698883" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Felice Beato (1825&#8211;1907)">Felice Beato (1825&#8211;1907)</a> to document the end of the war. They used pre-made dry plates. Unlike Fenton's wet collodion negatives, these plates had the advantage of not having to be coated and developed on site. Consequently, before the fall of the city, Robertson and Beato were able to patrol the allied trenches and batteries during sustained cannon fire and document various aspects of siege life without exposing themselves to great personal danger. Their permanent base was <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027821-9">Istanbul</a></span>, which was at most two days away from the Crimea by ship. They therefore had no difficulty returning to the front shortly after the victory of 8 September. During this visit and a few subsequent excursions (which Beato may have undertaken on his own), they were able to put together a dramatic series of photographs of the captured Russian ring of fortifications<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-das-innere-der-malakoff-bastion-1855" title="The Interior of the Malakoff Redoubt, 1855"><img alt="Das Innere der Malakoff-Bastion 1855 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/das-innere-der-malakoff-bastion-1855-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Das Innere der Malakoff-Bastion 1855 IMG"></a> and the city, which lay in ruins. The British officers were very keen to get copies of these photographs, in which the fallen soldiers had been removed but the chaos of the bombarded Russian positions was still "fresh". These photographic recordings are a trace of the material remnants of war. The remnants themselves are in turn a trace of the bloody fighting. The photographs are thus two steps removed from the war itself. But to the extent that they are <em>traces</em> rather than <em>depictions</em>, war is more present in them than in the great history paintings.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_11_marker12"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_11">12</a></sup></span></p>
<p>Hints of what Fenton's, Beato's and Robertson's photos all systematically omitted &#8211; the human losses of the Crimean campaign &#8211; can be found where one would least expect them: in a royal portrait album of privates and non-commissioned officers of the British army. In the winter of 1854/1855, as the siege of Sevastopol was going badly and the cabinet of the Earl of Aberdeen fell, Queen Victoria undertook measures to stabilize the system, such as the visits to invalids from the Crimea in military hospitals already referred to above. During these visits, each individual war invalid was introduced to her, so that she could ask them about their experiences of the war and give them some friendly words of encouragement. They were also photographed by <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/14829138" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Cundall (1818&#8211;1895)">Joseph Cundall (1818&#8211;1895)</a>. While a few of these photos made it into the press or were reproduced as wood engravings, they owe their existence primarily to the personal interest that the queen took in her soldiers right down to the lowliest private. Sir <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/305365604" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charles Beaumont Phipps (1801&#8211;1866)">Charles Beaumont Phipps (1801&#8211;1866)</a>, her secretary, put together a whole album of these photographs, in which details of the regiment, battles fought in, and the type of injury sustained were noted down in handwriting for each image. Victoria leafed through this album repeatedly over subsequent decades. In emotional letters written by her, she referred to these war invalids as "my nearest and dearest", almost as family members, but the images themselves are conspicuous for their distance and coldness. What are we to make of the pointed manner in which the leg stumps are displayed, alongside prosthetic legs paid for by Victoria herself?<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-william-young-33-rgt" title="William Young, 33rd Regiment"><img alt="William Young, 33. Regt IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/crimean-war-casualties-1856-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="William Young, 33. Regt IMG"></a> It clearly has less to do with the wishes and interests of the men photographed than it does with the quasi-anthropological interest with which Victoria observed these socially very different people, notwithstanding her effusive feelings of sympathy. The fact that two of the three men had lost their legs not as a result of Russian fire but due to frostbite in the trenches points to a shocking military failure. The fact that in the photo they have accommodation and are provided with blankets would be a consolation, were it not for peripheral details suggesting that this photograph was staged in the barracks square. In an earlier series of photographs, Cundall had not hidden the inhospitable nature of the place. The embellishment measures apparent in this photograph are presumably a response to the complaints that Queen Victoria made to the management of the hospital about the poor accommodation of the veterans. In any event, Cundall's portrait is not a family perspective, but a perspective of social class. Under the existing social order, it was Victoria who had the power and agency, and could subordinate others to her gaze, a gaze that both observed and created social difference.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_12_marker13"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_12">13</a></sup></span></p>
<p>The Crimean War was also documented photographically in France, though, due to a lack of entrepreneurial initiative, this occurred with a delay and on a purely individual basis. Durand-Brager deserves mention in this context also. In early November 1855, he returned to Sevastopol with the amateur photographer <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95911392" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Bernard Lassimonne (1787&#8211;1877)">Bernard Lassimonne (1787&#8211;1877)</a>. Under the direction of the painter, Lassimonne made 48 topographical photographs, which subsequently did not sell very well. <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/56664342" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charles Langlois (1789&#8211;1870)">Charles Langlois (1789&#8211;1870)</a> and <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/24658474" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="L&#233;on M&#233;h&#233;din (1828&#8211;1905)">L&#233;on M&#233;h&#233;din (1828&#8211;1905)</a> were another painter-photographer team, though they adopted a different approach. After serving as an officer, Langlois had become a military painter and had a lucrative panorama building on the Champs Elys&#233;es. He was able to gain the support of Napoleon III for his project of producing a large panorama painting of the fall of Sevastopol. To give the painting greater respectability, the French government paid for Langlois to travel to the Crimea to witness the fallen city in person. He wished to take photographs while there to assist his memory, but because he did not have the necessary technical skills himself, he paid out of his own pocket for the young photographer M&#233;h&#233;din to make the journey with him, so that he would have photos of topographical details and portraits photos of the officers that he intended to include in his great painting. In particular, a fourteen-part photographic panorama taken from the Malakoff redoubt must have been of great help for Langlois' panorama of Sevastopol, which has since been lost. Thus, around the middle of the nineteenth century, photography was still not useful as an instrument of press reporting, and instead served in both Britain and France mainly as a handmaid to art.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_13_marker14"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_13">14</a></sup></span></p>
<h2>The Abdication of History Painting</h2>
<p>British military painters looked enviously at France, where the government spent millions on the purchase of battle paintings. In Britain, by contrast, military subjects were primarily sought after by entrepreneurs, among whom Agnew again deserves special mention. He commissioned well-known artists to depict scenes from the Crimean War in order to make engraving prints from them, which made much higher profits than the paintings themselves. Thomas Barker's <em>Allied Generals before Sebastopol<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-die-alliierten-generale-vor-sewastopol-1856" title="The Allied Generals outside Sevastopol, 1856"><img alt="Die alliierten Gener&#228;le vor Sewastopol 1856 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/die-alliierten-generaele-vor-sewastopol-1856-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die alliierten Gener&#228;le vor Sewastopol 1856 IMG"></a></em> is representative of the whole series of war subjects that Agnew commissioned. The image was painted <em>and</em> engraved under great time pressure in only eleven months, so that it would be current and go on sale before the end of the war. The canvas grouped together no less than 70 prominent officers in front of the fortifications of Sevastopol, and is therefore less of a painting of an event and more of a visual roll of honour. Here, high art, which is normally at home in academies, has sunk to an intermediate step in the commercial production of modern pictorial media. In effect, it is little more than a processing in the medium of painting of Fenton's photos, which Agnew commissioned as a collection of pictorial material for Barker. And the painted version was not an end in itself, but was only a template for the production and dissemination of engraving prints in large print runs. Agnew's enterprise paid off, with the sale of the engraving prints making a profit of 10,000 pounds Sterling. In the process, the formerly autonomous and pacesetting genre of history painting became fully dependent on photography and graphics. Of course, history painting lived on in the palaces of the nobility, but its resonance in society was now insignificant. For example, <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/71361095" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="James Thomas Brudenell, Earl of Cardigan (1797&#8211;1868)">James Thomas Brudenell, Earl of Cardigan (1797&#8211;1868)</a> and the leader of the celebrated Charge of the Light Brigade, commissioned a very large portrait by the fashion painter Alfred F. de Prades (1840&#8211;1895), which hung in his salon, depicting him daringly leading his troops<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-lord-cardigan-an-der-spitze-der-leichten-brigade" title="Lord Cardigan at the Head of the Light Brigade"><img alt="Lord Cardigan an der Spitze der Leichten Brigade IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/lord-cardigan-an-der-spitze-der-leichten-brigade-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Lord Cardigan an der Spitze der Leichten Brigade IMG"></a> &#8211; after his very premature retreat from the battle had been the cause of much muttering. But ultimately his reputation was not decided by the adornments of his stately home, but by the press coverage.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_14_marker15"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_14">15</a></sup></span></p>
<p>In France, by contrast, the state used academic painting as a kind of auxiliary public relations agency, which had to serve the changing political priorities. A state system of exhibition and purchasing kept the artists in line with the government and also made the strict mimetic programme for the production of paintings the norm, to ensure the smooth transfer of the desired message in the paintings. Optimal faithfulness to nature and costume, the awarding of official prizes for works, the elevation of history painting to an academic discipline through the study of history and archives, artists being eyewitnesses to the events and places they depicted, and other such aspects gave the resulting paintings and their state-mythologizing message a high degree of credibility. But all this created the paradox that academic painting with its strict mimetic faithfulness to detail resulted in a kind of painted photograph of an event, which could nonetheless never be anything more than an official government construct. From 1855 to 1861, the approximately one hundred Crimean subjects that the state had purchased for nearly one million francs could be admired in the salons.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_15_marker16"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_15">16</a></sup></span></p>
<p>In short, history painting was an affair of state of the highest order in Paris. <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29803746" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Adolphe Yvon (1817&#8211;1893) ">Adolphe Yvon's (1817&#8211;1893)</a> painting <em>The Taking of the Malakoff Redoubt<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-die-einnahme-der-malakoff-bastion" title="The Taking of the Malakoff Redoubt"><img alt="Die Einnahme der Malakoff-Bastion IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/die-einnahme-der-malakoff-bastion-1857-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die Einnahme der Malakoff-Bastion IMG"></a></em> &#8211; the key Russian position &#8211; was paradigmatic of this. With the fall of the redoubt, the Crimean War was lost for Russia. Yvon's commission for a largescale canvas came from the emperor himself, who approved a princely fee of 20,000 francs for the commission and also arranged for the minister of the navy to transport the painter to the Crimea on a frigate with a crew of 300 men, so that the painting project could be based on the artist having been an 'eyewitness'. Additionally, the army assisted with the "lending" of soldiers, weapons and uniforms, and, as a critic noted, battle painters like Yvon were obliged to strictly adhere to the accounts of the battle in army bulletins. The enforced objectivity that history painting was subject to, which was to an extent open to academic verification, led to complications in the symbolism of the genre. For example, it was no longer possible to adhere to the traditional order of ranks from generals to privates. The positioning of the various ranks on the canvass was no longer determined by social precedence but by the rules of perspective and actual vouched occurrences during the course of the battle. Yvon thus opted for a paratactically organized painting that, instead of a hierarchical-pyramidical style of composition, contained a high density of episodes and figures from one edge to the other, clearly drawing on the organizational principle of panorama paintings. His canvass could therefore lay claim to greater documentary value that the illustration that appeared in <em>L'Illustration </em>shortly after the fall of the Malakoff redoubt. Durand-Brager had drawn the latter at home in Paris based on the initial vague telegraph reports and his own knowledge of the location. In conclusion, it can be said that, through its subordination to the dictate of objectivity of the positivist epoch, history painting had reached its limits. Its societal relevance had once lain in its function as a myth machine, but transporting myths had become increasingly difficult under the dictate of army bulletins and in its hopeless competition with press illustrations. To make it as current as possible, Yvon had completed his colossal painting, which measured 54 square metres in area, in a <em>tour de force</em> of only nine months. This was soon no longer worth the time and effort involved, and towards the end of the century history painting disappeared out of contemporary French artwork.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_16_marker17"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_16">17</a></sup></span></p>
<h2>New Media: Big City Show Business</h2>
<p>At the extremity of the spectrum of pictorial media, in a transition zone to three-dimensional, more or less theatrical performances without the status of high art, one encounters popular mass attractions whose spectacle put all traditional war depictions on canvas and paper in the shade. Historically, this show business originated in the period of the <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/rolf-reichardt-the-french-revolution-as-a-european-media-event" title="The French Revolution as a European Media Event">French Revolution</a>, during which the rise of the middle classes resulted in such a massive expansion in the consumption of art that traditional cabinet painting lagged hopelessly behind demand in quantitative terms. Painters with entrepreneurial flare recognized the opportunity that lay in producing largescale popular paintings, such as panoramas and dioramas, which in the foreground transitioned to the three-dimensional, which could be complemented by performances by troops of actors, and which &#8211; like cinema &#8211; offered entertainment by the hour for an entrance fee.</p>
<p>In addition to the changing Crimean depictions in <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/52631270" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Robert Burford (1791&#8211;1861)">Robert Burford's (1791&#8211;1861)</a> panorama, the most exciting Crimean War attractions in <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4074335-4">London</a></span> were the fake battles that were staged each night among largescale models of the fortifications of Sevastopol in the Surrey Zoological Gardens or Astley's Amphitheatre. Long before it happened in reality, spectators were able to enjoy the fall of Sevastopol here as a running spectacle. Actual and staged war theatre were also made indistinguishable by the willingness of invalids of the Crimean War to play themselves for a small fee each evening at the <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4118910-3">Surrey</a></span> Zoological Gardens<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-bild-modell-der-stadt-und-der-befestigungen-von-sewastopol-im-zoologischen-garten-von-surrey-1855" title="Image Model of the City and Fortifications of Sevastopol in the Surrey Zoological Gardens, 1855"><img alt="Bild-Modell der Stadt und der Befestigungen von Sewastopol im Zoologischen Garten von Surrey IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/bild-modell-der-stadt-und-der-befestigungen-von-sewastopol-im-zoologischen-garten-von-surrey-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Bild-Modell der Stadt und der Befestigungen von Sewastopol im Zoologischen Garten von Surrey IMG"></a>.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_17_marker18"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_17">18</a></sup></span> But nonchalant dandies and elegant ladies in crinoline could enjoy museum-style renderings of the war during the day as well, such as <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/27366005" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="James Wyld (1812&#8211;1887) ">James Wyld's (1812&#8211;1887)</a> relief panorama of the siege of Sevastopol, which also offered the opportunity to inspect captured Russian rifles.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-ausstellung-des-relief-modells-der-belagerung-von-sewastopol-1855" title="Exhibition of a Relief Model of the Siege of Sevastopol, 1855"><img alt="Ausstellung des Relief-Modells der Belagerung von Sewastopol IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/ausstellung-des-relief-modells-der-belagerung-von-sewastopol-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ausstellung des Relief-Modells der Belagerung von Sewastopol IMG"></a>&#160;</p>
<p>In contrast to London, the entertainment sphere in Paris was not yet fully defined by the influence of big capital. In particular, permanent institutions of show business had not yet emerged. However, show business nonetheless experienced a number of short-term successes that were inspired by the war. For example, the siege of <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/10019218-X">Silistra</a></span> in the initial <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4012712-6">Danube</a></span> campaign of the Crimean War was converted into a spectacle for the masses during a summer festival in August 1854 at the Champ de Mars with a backdrop a kilometre and a half wide and whole battalions of combatants, who according to a contemporary press report "massacred each other dutifully to the bitter end". The panorama genre also struggled in Paris, but thanks to the support of Napoleon III, in 1860 Langlois was able to open his panoramic painting of the storming of Sevastopol referred to above, and in spite of the delay it drew many spectators over a period of five years.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_18_marker19"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_18">19</a></sup></span></p>
<p>It is remarkable that show business did not escape the pressure to show itself to be "authentic". For example, the largescale model of the siege in the Surrey Zoological Gardens was produced by the painter <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95736410" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="George Danson (1799&#8211;1881)">George Danson (1799&#8211;1881)</a> with quasi-scientific accuracy based on maps, drawings and eyewitness accounts.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_19_marker20"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_19">20</a></sup></span> Panorama painters adopted a similar approach and often used photos of the theatres of war. Thus, in spite of its sensationalist presentation, show business too adopted the pose of factual objectivity. It is clear that this was necessary to maximize public appeal.</p>
<p>But Paris and London were not only filled with spectacular post hoc renderings of Crimean events in art and show business. The public of these two metropoles were also able to attend countless planning, test and training exercises, through which the military events were <em>pre</em>programmed in detail. For example, before the beginning of the Crimean campaign, a detonation of a mine<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-belagerungsoperationen-in-chatham-2013-zundung-einer-mine-1854" title="Siege Operations in Chatham &#8211; Detonation of a Mine, 1854"><img alt="Belagerungsoperationen in Chatham &#8211; Z&#252;ndung einer Mine 1854 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/belagerungsoperationen-in-chatham-2013-zuendung-einer-mine-1854-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Belagerungsoperationen in Chatham &#8211; Z&#252;ndung einer Mine 1854 IMG"></a> took place for test purposes in <span class="external-geo-link-container" itemscope="itemscope" itemtype="http://schema.org/Place"><a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/3004330-X">Chatham</a></span> near London. It was applauded by a curious crowd of spectators with an enthusiasm that was subsequently typical of allied soldiers when they cheered the impact of mortars on the besieged Sevastopol.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/en-sewastopol-aus-der-sicht-hinter-dem-grossen-redan-1856" title="Sevastopol Viewed from behind the Great Redan, 1856"><img alt="Sewastopol aus der Sicht hinter dem Gro&#223;en Redan 1856 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/der-krimkrieg/sewastopol-aus-der-sicht-hinter-dem-grossen-redan-1856-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Sewastopol aus der Sicht hinter dem Gro&#223;en Redan 1856 IMG"></a> In general, one can conclude that the shaping of history had been transferred to those who had the means to test and repeat desired scenarios. This confirms <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/24597462" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Jean Baudrillard (1929&#8211;2007)">Jean Baudrillard's (1929&#8211;2007)</a> thesis that today "das Wirkliche aus Miniatureinheiten, Matrizen, Datenbanken und Generalstabsmodellen hergestellt wird &#8211; und dass das Wirkliche wie diese unendlich oft reproduziert werden kann."<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_20_marker21"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_20">21</a></sup></span> The <em>pre</em>history of this <em>post</em>modern observation began with the Crimean War.</p>
<p>In summation, it is clear that the Crimean War occurred in the context of pre-existing, enormous apparatuses of depiction that made the representation of history an epiphenomenon of big-city spectacle. The printing presses and the amphitheatres had always run at full speed and demanded to be fed, even before the historical events had arrived. When they arrived, they did so in pre-made costumes on existing stages. Or put in another way, the war that was actually waged, was constantly forced to compete aesthetically with the other one that had long since been occurring on the stages of London and Paris. An aper&#231;u of the British cavalry colonel <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/53517576" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Edward Cooper Hodge (1810&#8211;1894)">Edward Cooper Hodge (1810&#8211;1894)</a> sums it up well. After observing a Crimean cannonade at night, he drily observed in a letter home: "The amusement park in Vauxhall is much better, as our girls would say." A French artillery officer similarly commented that the patterns of big-city cultural consumption were shaping the perception of the Crimean War. As the burial of fallen soldiers after an attack drew large numbers of spectators to the allied fortifications, it seemed to him that they thought they were "attending an opera burial".<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_21_marker22"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_21">22</a></sup></span> The promise of modern media to make simultaneity, authenticity and the ability to participate possible in the dissemination of history ultimately could not be kept in this context. The spectacular presentation of the fall of Sevastopol in theatre, art and the press mushroomed beyond all objective information. In the constant pre-empting and repetition of events, the moment of simultaneity got lost, and it is not accurate to speak of popular participation in events because the sensationalist, profit-oriented media display left the paying public with little more than the role of passive consumption.</p>
<p class="author"><a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/41908644/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ulrich Keller">Ulrich Keller</a></p>
</div> <h2>Appendix</h2>
<h3>Sources</h3>
<p>B&#233;darrides, Jean Paul: Journal humoristique du si&#232;ge de S&#233;bastopol, Paris 1868, vol. 1&#8211;2. URL: <a href="http://archive.org/details/journalhumorist01bdgoog" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/journalhumorist01bdgoog</a> / URL: <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.%24b319387" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.$b319387</a> [2021-12-13].</p>
<p>Guys, Constantin: Crimean War Drawings, with an introduction by Karen Smith, exhibition catalogue of Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, OH 1978.</p>
<p>Hodge, Edward C.: Little Hodge: Being Extracts from the Diaries and Letters of Colonel Edward C. Hodge Written during the Crimean War, 1854&#8211;1856, edited by George C. Marquess of Anglesey, London 1971.</p>
<p>L'Illustration: Journal universel, Paris 1843&#8211;1925.</p>
<p>Queen Victoria: The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty's Correspondence Between the Years 1837 and 1861, ed. by Arthur Christopher Benson et al. (eds.),New York 1907, vol. 1&#8211;6. URL: <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20023/20023-h/20023-h.htm" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20023/20023-h/20023-h.htm</a> (vol. 1&#8211;3) [2021-12-13].</p>
<p>Quesnoy, Ferdinand-D&#233;sir&#233;: Souvenirs historiques, militaires et m&#233;dicaux de l'arm&#233;e d'Orient, Paris 1858. URL: <a href="http://wellcomecollection.org/works/xym5wxek" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://wellcomecollection.org/works/xym5wxek</a> / URL: <a href="http://archive.org/details/b22270991" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/b22270991</a> [2021-12-13]</p>
<p>Langlois, Jean Charles: : La photographie, la peinture, la guerre: Correspondence in&#233;dite de Crim&#233;e (1855&#8211;1856), ed. by Fran&#231;ois Robichon et al., N&#238;mes 1992.</p>
<p>Yvon, Adolphe: Souvenirs d'un peintre militaire, edited by A. Augustin-Thierry, in: Revue des deux mondes, Paris 1933. URL: <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/44847913" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://www.jstor.org/stable/44847913</a> /URL: <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30761637" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30761637</a> [2021-12-13]</p>
<h3>Literature</h3>
<p>Agnew, Geoffrey: Agnew's 1817&#8211;1867, London 1967.</p>
<p>Altick, Richard: The Shows of London, Cambridge, MA 1978. URL: <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.00970" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.00970</a> [2021-12-13]</p>
<p>Bardon, Annie: Milit&#228;rmalerei im Second Empire am Beispiel des Krimkriegs, Diss. Marburg 1980.</p>
<p>Barker, Arthur J.: The Vainglorious War 1854&#8211;1856, London 1970.</p>
<p>Baumgart, Winfried: The Crimean War, London 1999.</p>
<p>Baudrillard, Jean: The Precession of Simulacra, in: Brian Wallis et al. (eds.): Art After Modernism: Rethinking Representation, New York, NY 1984.</p>
<p>Boime, Albert: The Academy and French Painting in the 19th Century, London 1971.</p>
<p>Burn, William L.: The Age of Equipoise: A Study of the Mid-Victorian Generation, New York, NY 1965. URL: <a href="http://archive.org/details/ageofequipoisest0000burn_e8a3" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/ageofequipoisest0000burn_e8a3</a> / URL: <a href="http://doi.org/10.4324/9780367351502" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://doi.org/10.4324/9780367351502</a> [2021-12-13]</p>
<p>Davis, Lennard J.: Factual Fictions: The Origins of the Novel, New York, NY 1983. URL: <a href="http://archive.org/details/factualfictionso0000davi" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/factualfictionso0000davi</a> [2021-12-13]</p>
<p>Duflo, Pierre: Constantin Guys: Fou de dessin, grand reporter 1802&#8211;1892, Paris 1988.</p>
<p>Figes, Orlando: The Crimean War: A History, London 2011. URL: <a href="http://archive.org/details/OrlandoFigesTheCrimeanWarAHistory2011MetropolitanBooks/mode/2up" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/OrlandoFigesTheCrimeanWarAHistory2011MetropolitanBooks/mode/2up</a> [2021-12-13]</p>
<p>Gerber, Fr&#233;d&#233;ric / Nicaise, Christian / Robichon, Fran&#231;ois: Un aventurier du Second Empire: L&#233;on M&#233;h&#233;din, 1825&#8211;1905, Rouen 1992.</p>
<p>Germer, Stefan: Taken on the Spot: Zur Inszenierung des Zeitgen&#246;ssischen in der Malerei des 19. Jahrhunderts, in: Stefan Germer et al. (eds.): Bilder der Macht: Macht der Bilder: Zeitgeschichte in Darstellungen des 19. Jahrhunderts, Munich 1997, pp. 17&#8211;36.</p>
<p>Gernsheim, Helmut: Roger Fenton: Photographer of the Crimean War: His Photographs and his Letters from the Crimea, London, 1954.</p>
<p>Keller, Ulrich: Schlachtenbilder, Bilderschlachten: Zur visuellen Kultur des Krimkriegs, in: Georg Maag et al. (eds.): Der Krimkrieg als erster europ&#228;ischer Medienkrieg, Berlin 2010, pp. 16&#8211;62.</p>
<p>Keller, Ulrich: The Ultimate Spectacle: A Visual History of the Crimean War, Amsterdam 2001. URL: <a href="http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315078564" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315078564</a> [2021-12-13]</p>
<p>Lalumia, Matthew P.: Realism and Politics in Victorian Art of the Crimean War, Ann Arbor, MI 1984.</p>
<p>Mus&#233;e des Beaux-Arts Caen (ed.): Jean-Charles Langlois 1789&#8211;1870: Le spectacle de l'histoire, Paris 2005.</p>
<p>Nolan, Edward H.: History of the War Against Russia, London 1857, vol. 1&#8211;2. URL: <a href="http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10353284-7" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10353284-7</a> (Vol. 1) / URL: <a href="http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10353285-2" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10353285-2</a> (Vol. 2) [2021-12-13]</p>
<p>Oettermann, Stephan: Das Panorama, Munich 1980.</p>
<p>&#214;ztuncay, Bahattin: James Robertson: Pioneer Photography in the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul 1992.</p>
<p>Peirce, Charles S.: Logic as Semiotic: The Theory of Signs, in: Robert E. Innis (ed.): Semiotics: An Introductory Anthology, Bloomington, IN 1985.</p>
<p>Perkin, Harold: The Origins of Modern English Society 1780&#8211;1880, London 1969.</p>
<p>Rousset, Camille: Histoire de la guerre de Crim&#233;e, 2nd edition, Paris 1878. URL: <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6435917x" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6435917x</a> [2021-12-17]</p>
<p>Sherman, Daniel J.: Worthy Monuments and the Politics of Culture in 19th Century France, Cambridge, MA 1989. URL: <a href="http://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674433342" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674433342</a> [2021-12-17]</p>
<p>Woodham-Smith, Cecil: Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times, London 1972, vol. 1&#8211;2. URL: <a href="http://archive.org/details/queenvictoriaher0000wood_o7n2" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://archive.org/details/queenvictoriaher0000wood_o7n2</a> [2021-12-17]</p>
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ol id="InsertNote_NoteList" type="1">
<li id="InsertNoteID_0"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_0_marker1">^</a></sup> <span> A good overview of the political and military events of the war can be found in Baumgart, Crimean War 1999, and Barker, Vainglorious War 1970 and Figes, Crimean War 2011.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_1"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_1_marker2">^</a></sup> <span> On this and following questions, more detailed passages (which are not quoted here) and additional literature can be found in Keller, Ultimate Spectacle 2001, and in Keller, Schlachtenbilder, Bilderschlachten 2010; see also the older, not always dependable study of Lalumia, Realism and Politics 1984.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_2"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_2_marker3">^</a></sup> <span> On the emergence of pictorial coverage see Keller, Ultimate Spectacle 2001, pp. 71ff., and Germer, Taken on the Spot 1997, pp. 29ff.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_3"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_3_marker4">^</a></sup> <span> See Burn, Age of Equipoise 1965, passim; Perkin, Modern English Society 1780&#8211;1880 1969, pp. 271ff.; on the increasing separation of fact and fiction in England in the 18th century, see Davis, Factual Fictions 1983, pp. 85ff.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_4"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_4_marker5">^</a></sup> <span> On the situation in France, see the excellent work of Bardon, Milit&#228;rmalerei 1980, pp. 82ff.; Boime, French Painting 1971; Sherman, Worthy Monuments 1989. The traces of the Crimean War in the French illustrated press, photography and painting are not dealt with in my book <em>The Ultimate Spectacle</em> 2001, but I have corrected this omission at least in outline in Keller, Schlachtenbilder, Bilderschlachten 2010.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_5"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_5_marker6">^</a></sup> <span> On Guys, see Duflo, Constantin Guys 1988, and Guys, Crimean War Drawings 1978. Guys once explained to a Paris colleague: "D&#8217;abord le journal [Illustrated London News] n&#8217;est pas un recueil purement artistique, c&#8217;est un journal s&#233;rieux, je veux dire vrai" (Duflo 1988, p. 58).</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_6"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_6_marker7">^</a></sup> <span> On Durand-Brager, see Bardon, Milit&#228;rmalerei 1980, pp. 82ff. Details of the conditions of his reporting activity can be found here and there in his numerous reports from the front printed in <em>L&#8217;Illustration</em> 1854&#8211;1856.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_7"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_7_marker8">^</a></sup> <span> See Durand-Brager's letter to the editor in <em>L&#8217;Illustration</em> of 27/1/1855.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_8"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_8_marker9">^</a></sup> <span> On the catastrophe of infectious diseases in the French army, see Rousset, Histoire 1878, vol. 2, pp. 458ff., and Quesnoy, Souvenirs historiques 1858, pp. 153ff.; as well as Bardon, Milit&#228;rmalerei 1980, pp. 142ff.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_9"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_9_marker10">^</a></sup> <span> Still authoritative on Fenton's Crimean expedition is the monograph by Gernsheim, Roger Fenton 1954.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_10"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_10_marker11">^</a></sup> <span> Nolan, War Against Russia 1857, vol. 2, p. 326, names 17 participants in the actual war council, that occurred (according to B&#233;darrides, Journal humoristique 1868, vol. 2, p. 373) on 4 June, not three days later on the morning of the attack.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_11"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_11_marker12">^</a></sup> <span> On Robertson's and Beato's Crimean photos, see Gernsheim, Roger Fenton 1954, p. 24f.; also &#214;ztuncay, James Robertson 1992. On the distinction between trace and representation, that is "indexical and iconic signs", see Peirce, Logic as Semiotic 1985, pp. 1ff.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_12"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_12_marker13">^</a></sup> <span> On Queen Victoria's visits to the invalid hospitals, see Woodham-Smith, Queen Victoria 1972, vol. 1, pp. 349ff. The letter quotation comes from: Benson, Victoria 1907, vol. 3, p. 161.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_13"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_13_marker14">^</a></sup> <span> On Lassimonne, there is nearly no literature. On Langlois and M&#233;h&#233;din, see Robichon, Jean Charles Langlois 1992; Mus&#233;e des Beaux-Arts, Jean-Charles Langlois 1789&#8211;1870 2005; Gerber, Un aventurier du Second Empire 1992.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_14"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_14_marker15">^</a></sup> <span> On the history and commercial strategies of the Agnew art dealer dynasty, see Agnew, Agnew's 1817&#8211;1867 1967, pp. 61ff.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_15"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_15_marker16">^</a></sup> <span> See the excellent description of the institutional context of French military painting in Bardon, Milit&#228;rmalerei 1980; particularly pp. 249ff., on the large commission of the government for several Crimean subjects for hundreds of thousands of francs.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_16"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_16_marker17">^</a></sup> <span> On Yvon's role in the Crimean War, see Germer, Taken on the Spot 1997, pp. 29ff.; Bardon, Milit&#228;rmalerei 1980, pp. 77f. and 109ff.; as well as Yvon, Souvenirs 1933, pp. 844ff.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_17"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_17_marker18">^</a></sup> <span> The London pictorial attractions are described in vibrant detail in Altick, Shows of London 1978; see also Oettermann, Panorama 1980, particularly pp. 88ff., on Burford's panorama.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_18"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_18_marker19">^</a></sup> <span> The quotation is contained in <em>L&#8217;Illustration</em>, 19 August 1854. On Langlois' panorama, see Oettermann, Panorama 1980, pp. 124ff.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_19"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_19_marker20">^</a></sup> <span> See the relevant details in <em>Illustrated London News</em> of 2 June 1855.</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_20"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_20_marker21">^</a></sup> <span> Baudrillard, Precession of Simulacra 1984, p. 254 ("the real is created from miniature units, matrices, databases and general staff models &#8211; and that the real like these can be reproduced endlessly." transl. by N. Williams).</span></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_21"><sup><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856#InsertNoteID_21_marker22">^</a></sup> <span> Hodge, Diaries and Letters 1971, p. 111; B&#233;darrides, Journal humoristique 1868, p. 385.</span></li>
</ol>

</div>
	<div id="article_metadata"><br>
		<div id="license" class="smalltype">
				<span class="cc-image-link">
					<a class="de" rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.de"><img alt="Creative Commons Lizenzvertrag" style="border-width:0" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-nd/3.0/80x15.png"></a>
					<a class="en" rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.en"><img alt="Creative Commons Lizenzvertrag" style="border-width:0" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-nd/3.0/80x15.png"></a>
				</span>
			<br>
			<span class="de">Dieser Text ist lizensiert unter</span>
			<span class="en">This text is licensed under</span>: <span class="licence"><span class="selected-option">CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works</span></span>
		</div>
		<hr>
		<p>
			<span id="translator"><span class="de">&#220;bersetzt von:</span><span class="en">Translated by:</span> <span id="form-widgets-translator" class="text-widget textline-field">Niall Williams</span></span><br>
			<span id="publisher"><span class="de">Fachherausgeber:</span><span class="en">Editor:</span> <span id="form-widgets-publisher" class="text-widget textline-field">J&#252;rgen Wilke</span>

</span><br>
			<span id="copyeditor"><span class="de">Redaktion:</span><span class="en">Copy Editor:</span> <span id="form-widgets-copyeditor" class="text-widget textline-field">Claudia Falk</span>

</span><br>
		</p>
			<div class="document-paths-container">
				<strong><span class="de">Eingeordnet unter:</span><span class="en">Filed under:</span></strong>
					<div class="document-paths">
					
        <div>
          <ul class="path breadcrumbs">
            <li>
              <a href="https://ego-ploneui.uni-trier.de">Home</a>
            </li> 
            <li>
              <span class="path-separator">&#8594;</span>
              en 
            </li>
            <li>
              <span class="path-separator">&#8594;</span>
              Threads 
            </li>
            <li>
              <span class="path-separator">&#8594;</span>
              <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars">Alliances and Wars</a> 
            </li>
            <li>
              <span class="path-separator">&#8594;</span>
              <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer">War as an Agent of Transfer</a> 
            </li>
            <li>
              <span class="path-separator">&#8594;</span>
              <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856">Crimean War</a> 
            </li>
          </ul>
        </div>            
        
      </div>
		</div>  
		<hr>
		<div class="relatedItems">
		</div>
			<h3 id="indices">Indices</h3>
		<div id="ddcarea">
			DDC: <span id="ddcs"><a href="/search?DDC=070&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 070</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=070">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=070">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a><a href="/search?DDC=355&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 355</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=355">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=355">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a><a href="/search?DDC=947&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 947</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=947">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=947">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a></span>
		</div>
		<br>
		<div class="geo-links-container"></div>
		<div id="map" style="height:450px;"></div>
		<script src="https://openlayers.org/api/2.13.1/OpenLayers.js"></script>
		<script>
			map = new OpenLayers.Map("map");
			var markers = new OpenLayers.Layer.Markers( "Markers" );
			map.addLayer(markers);
			map.addLayer(new OpenLayers.Layer.OSM());       
			var fromProjection = new OpenLayers.Projection("EPSG:4326");   // Transform from WGS 1984
			var toProjection   = new OpenLayers.Projection("EPSG:900913"); // to Spherical Mercator Projection
			var position       = new OpenLayers.LonLat(8.247253,49.992863).transform( fromProjection, toProjection);
			map.setCenter(position, 4 );
		</script>
		<hr>
		<h3><span class="de">Zitierempfehlung</span><span class="en">Citation</span></h3>
		<p class="box" id="citation">
			<span class="articleauthor"><span class="reversedallauthors"><span class="reversedauthor">Keller, Ulrich</span><span></span></span></span>: <span class="doc_title">The Image of War: The Crimean War (1853&#8211;1856)</span>, in:
			<span class="de">Europ&#228;ische Geschichte Online (EGO),
			hg. vom <span class="leibniz-addition">Leibniz-</span>Institut f&#252;r Europ&#228;ische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz </span>
			<span class="en">European History Online (EGO),
			published by the <span class="leibniz-addition">Leibniz </span>Institute of European History (IEG), Mainz </span>
			<span class="publicationsdate">2022-01-18</span>.
			URL: <a id="primaryurl" href="">https://www.ieg-ego.eu/<span class="unique">kelleru-2013</span>-<span class="articlelanguage">en</span></a>
			URN: <a id="primaryurn" href=""><span id="urn">urn:nbn:de:0159-2022011704</span></a> <span class="de">[JJJJ-MM-TT]</span><span class="en">[YYYY-MM-DD]</span>.
		</p>
		<p class="de smalltype">Bitte setzen Sie beim Zitieren dieses Beitrages hinter der URL-Angabe in Klammern das Datum Ihres letzten Besuchs dieser Online-Adresse ein. Beim Zitieren einer bestimmten Passage aus dem Beitrag bitte zus&#228;tzlich die Nummer des Textabschnitts angeben, z.B. 2 oder 1-4.</p>
		<p class="en smalltype">When quoting this article please add the date of your last retrieval in brackets after the url. When quoting a certain passage from the article please also insert the corresponding number(s), for example 2 or 1-4.</p>
		<div id="ppnarea">
			<br>
			<span class="de">Titelexport aus</span><span class="en">Export citation from</span>:
			<span id="ppn"><a title="incl. export options into standard citation formats" href="http://cbsopac.rz.uni-frankfurt.de/DB=2.1/PPNSET?PPN=489540864"><span class="de">HeBIS-Online-Katalog</span><span class="en">HeBIS Online Catalogue</span> <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"></a> </span>
			<span id="oclc"><a title="incl. export options into standard citation formats" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1292527108">WorldCat<span class="oclc-id hidden">http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1292527108</span> <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"></a> </span>
			<span id="swb"></span>
		</div>
		<hr class="double">
		<div class="social-buttons">
			<div class="email-button-container">
				<a href="#" class="email-button social-button"><span title="Recommend via E-Mail" class="en">E-Mail</span><span title="Empfehlung per E-Mail" class="de">E-Mail</span></a>
			</div>
			<div class="recensio-button-container">
				<span class="print"><span class="en">Comment on this entry at recensio.net</span><span class="de">Diesen Beitrag bei recensio.net kommentieren</span>: </span>
				<a href="#" class="recensio-button social-button"><span title="Comment on this entry at recensio.net" class="en">Comment</span><span title="Diesen Beitrag bei recensio.net kommentieren" class="de">Kommentieren</span></a>
			</div>
			<div class="gplus-button-container">
			<div class="gplus-2click-dummy"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_gplus.png" title="Click here to activate +1 button" alt="+1" class="en"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_gplus.png" title="Hier klicken um den +1 Button zu aktivieren" alt="+1" class="de"></div></div>
			<div class="fb-button-container">
			<div class="fb-2click-dummy"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_facebook_en.png" title="Click here to activate Facebook button" alt="Facebook" class="en"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_facebook.png" title="Hier klicken um den Facebook Button zu aktivieren" alt="Facebook" class="de"></div></div>
		</div> 
		<div class="clear">&#160;</div>       
	</div>
</div> 
			<div class="grid_2 hyphenate" id="rightsidebar">
				<div id="mediabar">
					<ul>
					</ul>
				</div>
			</div>
			<div class="clear">&#160;</div>
			<div class="grid_9">
				<div id="breadcrumb0" class="breadCrumb module">
				<div id="breadcrumbs-1">
				</div>
				</div>
			</div>	
		</div> 
		<div class="clear">&#160;</div>
		<div id="footer" class="grid_9">
            <ul id="bottommenu" class="smalltype">
				<li class="first">
					<a href="/en/ego">About EGO</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/contact">Contact</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/impressum">Legal Details</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/privacy">Privacy</a>
				</li>
				<li class="last">ISSN 2192-7405</li>
                <li class="gplus-2click-dummy" data-url="http://www.ieg-ego.eu">
                    <img alt="+1" title="Click here to activate +1 button" src="/_theme/img/dummy_gplus.png">
                </li>
                <li class="fb-2click-dummy" data-url="http://www.ieg-ego.eu">
                    <img alt="Facebook" title="Click here to activate Facebook button" src="/_theme/img/dummy_facebook_en.png">
                </li>
            </ul>
            <span class="print">http://www.ieg-ego.eu ISSN 2192-7405</span>
        </div> 
		</div>  
		
			<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/plugins.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
			
			
			<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/jquery.scrollUp.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		<script type="text/javascript" src="https://apis.google.com/js/plusone.js">
		{ parsetags: 'explicit' }
		</script>
		<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/ego_global.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		
		<script type="text/javascript">
			var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || [];
			/* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */
			_paq.push(['trackPageView']);
			_paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']);
			(function() {
			var u="https://tcdhpiwik.uni-trier.de/";
			_paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']);
			_paq.push(['setSiteId', '11']);
			var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];
			g.type='text/javascript'; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s);
			})();
		</script>
	  
	</body>
</html>

EGO | People , Places , Pages

Actions