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 <meta name="description" content="The present article deals with the events of the Reformation in the kingdom of England. Under the monarchs of the house of Tudor, England not only ventured to break with the Roman papacy but also, amid the religious and political upheavals of the 16th century, followed a unique middle way of Church reform. These developments continued under the Stuart dynasty, which succeeded the Tudors in the 17th century. The interplay between a Protestant reforming agenda and the tenacious conservative elements of the old religion ultimately produced an Anglican state Church independent of Rome, governed instead by Crown and Parliament."><meta name="copyright" content="IEG Mainz">
 
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		<title>Anglicanism &#8212; EGO </title>
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			<div id="content" class="grid_5">
	<h1>Anglicanism</h1>
	<div class="documentByLine" id="document-byline">
 
			von 
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 Philipp Wei&#223;
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				2026-03-23
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 	Anglicanism
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 The present article deals with the events of the Reformation in the kingdom of England. Under the monarchs of the house of Tudor, England not only ventured to break with the Roman papacy but also, amid the religious and political upheavals of the 16th century, followed a unique middle way of Church reform. These developments continued under the Stuart dynasty, which succeeded the Tudors in the 17th century. The interplay between a Protestant reforming agenda and the tenacious conservative elements of the old religion ultimately produced an Anglican state Church independent of Rome, governed instead by Crown and Parliament.
 
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 <h2>England on the eve of the Reformation</h2>
As a blanket term, "<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/marcel-nieden-the-wittenberg-reformation-as-a-media-event" title="The Wittenberg Reformation as a Media Event">Reformation</a>" refers to a process of religious-political and cultural transformation which decisively shaped the societies of early modern <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4015701-5">Europe</a> and which by the 1520s had also reached the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4090131-2">British Isles</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_0">1</a> The events and movements making up the Reformation are closely interwoven with the history of the archipelago's three kingdoms: <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4053233-1">Scotland</a> in the north, the island of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027667-3">Ireland</a> in the west and the dominant power in the south, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4014770-8">England</a>, which since the 13th century also governed the principality of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4064435-2">Wales</a>. In terms of religion, the three kingdoms had for centuries formed part of the Catholic cosmos, which changed &#8211; fundamentally and in varying degrees &#8211; in the course of the 16th century.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_1">2</a> When&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/172419710" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Henry VIII. of England (1492&#8211;1547)">Henry VIII (1492&#8211;1547)</a> acceded to the throne, the kingdom he ruled was, compared with other European countries, sparsely populated and politically less united than the Tudors would have wished after the Wars of the Roses. At the beginning of the century, England is estimated to have had a population of approximately two million, engaged largely in agriculture and dominated by local magnates under the feudal system. Ninety per cent of the population lived in rural communities, the remaining ten per cent being concentrated in and around the capital, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4074335-4">London</a>, and the country's approximately seven hundred cities and towns.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_2">3</a> England's dioceses were divided into the provinces of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4009422-4">Canterbury</a> and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4067209-8">York</a>, the former, with 14 suffragan bishops, being by far the larger. In the north, the archdiocese of York formed the core of the province, the other sees being <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4229256-6">Carlisle</a> and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4085513-2">Durham</a>. The archbishop of Canterbury had traditionally claimed the title of "primate of all England", reflected not least in the privilege of crowning the English monarch<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/a-ioyfull-medytacyon-to-all-englonde-of-the-coronacyon-of-our-moost-naturall-souerayne-lorde-kynge-henry-the-eyght-en" title="A ioyfull medytacyon to all Englonde of the coronacyon of our moost naturall souerayne lorde kynge Henry the eyght"><img alt="A ioyfull medytacyon to all Englonde of the coronacyon of our moost naturall souerayne lorde kynge Henry the eyght IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/nachrichtenkommunikation-bilderordner/a-ioyfull-medytacyon-to-all-englonde-of-the-coronacyon-of-our-moost-naturall-souerayne-lorde-kynge-henry-the-eyght-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="A ioyfull medytacyon to all Englonde of the coronacyon of our moost naturall souerayne lorde kynge Henry the eyght"></a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_3">4</a> By the late middle ages, the English Church had already come to regard itself as a kind of national Church, linked to the secular authorities in manifold ways. It lent its spiritual and moral power to bolster the monarch's authority, supporting the Crown against its subjects. In return, the king safeguarded the traditional privileges of the clergy and of the ecclesiastical courts, deployed his temporal powers in the persecution of heretics, and undertook diplomatic missions in the papal interest.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_4">5</a> Indeed, compared with the state of the German Church or the scandals rocking the Roman curia in the first decade of the new century, the English Church of the early Tudor period seemed to face no major challenges.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_5">6</a>
<h2>The break with Rome under Henry VIII</h2>
Lutheran writings reached England even before 1520, arriving in London<a href="https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/braun1582bd1/0011" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Braun, Georg; Hogenberg, Franz; Novellanus, Simon Beschreibung vnd Contrafactur der vornembster St&#228;t der Welt: Londinum, Digitalisat: Universit&#228;tsbibliothek Heidelberg"><img alt="Londinum 1572 IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/early-modern-ports-bilderordner/londinum-1572-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Londinum 1572 IMG"></a> and other ports engaged in&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/courts-and-cities/catia-antunes-early-modern-ports-1500-1750" title="Early Modern Ports 1500&#8211;1750">maritime commerce</a> with the Continent, and rapidly spread by merchants and tradesmen. The&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/backgrounds/translation/mary-snell-hornby-juergen-f-schopp-translation" title="Translation">translation</a> of&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/14773105/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Martin Luther's (1483&#8211;1546)">Martin Luther's (1483&#8211;1546)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/portraits-of-martin-luther-by-lucas-cranach-the-elder" title="Portrait of Martin Luther">[<img alt="Portrait von Martin Luther (1483&#8211;1546) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-nordeuropa-bilderordner/portrait-von-martin-luther-148320131546-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Portrait of Martin Luther">]</a> own writings, with the exception of his Latin works, initially posed a problem, largely limiting their initial reception to academic circles.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_6">7</a> We know of a circle of scholars at the University of Cambridge whose exact composition is uncertain, but which is likely to have included the later archbishops <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/2485707" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas Cranmer (1489&#8211;1556)">Thomas Cranmer (1489&#8211;1556)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/thomas-cranmer-148920131556" title="Thomas Cranmer (1489&#8211;1556)">[<img alt="Thomas Cranmer IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/thomas-cranmer-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Thomas Cranmer (1489&#8211;1556)">]</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/49234661" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Matthew Parker (1504&#8211;1575)">Matthew Parker (1504&#8211;1575)</a> as well other such influential reformers as&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/4884095" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas Bilney (1495&#8211;1531)">Thomas Bilney (1495&#8211;1531)</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/17270214" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John Frith (1503&#8211;1533)">John Frith (1503&#8211;1533)</a>. Other members of the illustrious group were&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/74646733" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Robert Barnes (1495&#8211;1540)">Robert Barnes (1495&#8211;1540)</a>, later martyred for his Lutheran beliefs, as well as&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/87513128" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="William Tyndale (1494&#8211;1536)">William Tyndale (1494&#8211;1536)</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/39395593" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Miles Coverdale (1488&#8211;1568)">Miles Coverdale (1488&#8211;1568)</a>, who were instrumental in producing the first "authorised" English Bible.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_7">8</a> Once&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/96579640" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Pope Leo X (1475&#8211;1521)">Pope Leo X (1475&#8211;1521)</a> issued a bull condemning Luther's teachings, the heads of the English Church began to crack down on his suspected followers and their activities in England. Luther himself was excommunicated by Cardinal <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/22937889" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas Wolsey (1473&#8211;1530)">Thomas Wolsey (1473&#8211;1530)</a>&#160;in May 1521 and his writings publicly burned. In July of the same year the treatise Assertio Septem Sacramentorum<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/assertio-septem-sacramentorum" title="Assertio Septem Sacramentorum"><img alt="Assertio Septem Sacramentorum" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/assertio-septem-sacramentorum/@@images/image/thumb" title="Assertio Septem Sacramentorum"></a>&#160;appeared under the king's name. For his refutation of Luther's De captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae, Henry VIII was rewarded by the pope with the title of Fidei Defensor (defender of the faith).<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_8">9</a> The bishops had reason to be worried about the nascent reforming movement, whose principal ideas were being spread among the wider populace above all by illegally circulating vernacular translations of the Scriptures.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_9">10</a> The most famous such translation to be produced in the 16th century was the work of William Tyndale, a <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4086741-9">Gloucestershire</a> priest educated in the humanist tradition who, influenced by Luther's translation of the New Testament, began work on an English Bible in 1523.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_10">11</a> Until the mid-1520s, there was nothing to suggest that the Tudor king was following the progress of reforming ideas on the Continent with the remotest sympathy. On the contrary, Henry VIII's theological polemic of 1521 signified that opposition to Luther and his followers was of personal concern to the king. However, this began to change when in or around 1527 &#8211; an exact date is impossible to establish &#8211; Henry despaired of his marriage to&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/13102140" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Catherine of Aragon (1485&#8211;1536)">Catherine of Aragon (1485&#8211;1536)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/catherine-of-aragon-148520131536" title="Catherine of Aragon (1485&#8211;1536)">[<img alt="Katharina von Arag&#243;n IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/katharina-von-aragon-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Katharina von Arag&#243;n IMG">]</a> producing a male heir in addition to their only child, their daughter&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/57408108" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Mary I of England (1516&#8211;1558)">Mary (1516&#8211;1558)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/mary-i-of-england-151620131558" title="Mary I of England (1516&#8211;1558)">[<img alt="Maria Tudor IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/maria-tudor-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Maria Tudor IMG">]</a> and began directing his attention towards Catherine&#8217;s maid of honour, <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29521340" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Anne Boleyn (1507&#8211;1536)">Anne Boleyn (1507&#8211;1536)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/anne-boleyn-150720131536" title="Anne Boleyn (1507&#8211;1536)">[<img alt="Anne Boleyn Portrait IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/anne-boleyn/@@images/image/thumb" title="Anne Boleyn Portrait IMG">]</a>. At the time, it seemed inconceivable that this affair would ever be anything more than an question of dynastic politics and that it would ultimately lead Henry to become the first European ruler to break with the papacy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_11">12</a> Henry had come to regard the lack of a male heir as a divine judgment on his own ungodly conduct, specifically on his having married his brother's widow. On 16 July 1529&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/90633828" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Pope Clement VII (1478&#8211;1534)">Pope Clement VII (1478&#8211;1534)</a> formally took charge of the case in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4050471-2">Rome</a>, putting an end to the king's hopes that it might be settled in England.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_12">13</a> Yet Henry would not accept the validity of his marriage without a fight, dismissing Cardinal Wolsey, the Lord Chancellor, as his chief negotiator in October 1529.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_13">14</a>
It is worth mentioning two other factors whose importance for "the king's great matter", as it soon came to be known, should not be underestimated. Pope Clement was in an awkward political situation, having become embroiled in the struggle between the French king,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88805531" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Francis I King of France (1494&#8211;1547)">Francis I (1494&#8211;1547)</a>, and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88598818" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charles V Holy Roman Emperor (1500&#8211;1558)">Charles V (1500&#8211;1558)</a>, Holy Roman Emperor and Catherine of Aragon's nephew, over political dominance in northern Italy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_14">15</a> The slow progress of negotiations over the annulment and the increasing influence of Anne Boleyn &#8211; who in turn was hostile to Cardinal Wolsey, whom she accused of covertly working against the king &#8211; encouraged the king in the notion that he had to ensure his own legitimacy and settle a matter of such importance to his succession within his in realm, with or without the bishop of Rome.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_15">16</a> By 1529 at the latest, the laws being passed by the newly convened Parliament paved the way not only for the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon but also for the severance from Roman control of the English Church, which henceforth would exist under royal supremacy. After Wolsey's downfall,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29541174" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas More (1478&#8211;1535)">Thomas More (1478&#8211;1535)</a> became Lord Chancellor. More, however, refused to involve himself in the case of the king's marriage, concentrating instead on domestic politics and especially on stemming the rising tide of Protestant heresy. His first official act was to ban the importation of heretical writings as well as ordering several burnings of proscribed books. Meanwhile, the king and his advisers &#8211; notably&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29523928" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas Cromwell (1485&#8211;1540)">Thomas Cromwell (1485&#8211;1540)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/thomas-cromwell-148520131540" title="Thomas Cromwell (1485&#8211;1540)">[<img alt="Thomas Cromwell IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/thomas-cromwell-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Thomas Cromwell IMG">]</a>, a lawyer whose rise had begun in Wolsey's service &#8211; continued their efforts to persuade the pope and the curia to grant an annulment. To that end, the king's scholars tried a variety of approaches.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_16">17</a> Thomas Cramner was the first to suggest that the case might be successfully pursued on legal rather than strictly theological grounds.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_17">18</a> But of course the king's lawyers, though they advanced legal and historical arguments, were no less committed to subjecting the Church to the Crown. In September 1530 the king was presented with a collection of historiographical sources known as the Collectanea satis copiosa. The Collectanea gathered material in support of the independent jurisdiction of the English Church, basing the monarch's authority within his own realm on ancient privileges which included the clergy. England, it argued, was an empire (imperium) and as such owed allegiance to no foreign ruler.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_18">19</a> In order to advance the his case for an annulment, the king now openly encouraged anticlerical sentiment already latent among sections of Parliament. The argument between Crown and clergy was by no means settled when, in 1531, Pope Clement rejected Henry's demand that his case be heard in England. Yet although the stage was now set for open conflict, the king at this time was still far from contemplating schism or the toleration of heresy. As he saw it, his concern was merely to defend his natural authority as sovereign ruler of his dominions against illegitimate interference.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_19">20</a> To this end, legislation against abuses and infractions on the part of the clergy was drafted under Cromwell's leadership and introduced into the lower house in 1532 as the Supplication of the Commons. The Submission of the Clergy, the first measures of which were approved on 15 May 1532 by the Convocation of Canterbury, sealed the fate of such bishops as were still prepared to resist. The king let the Convocation know that any changes to canon law required royal licence, that existing canons were to be reviewed and, where necessary, revisions suggested by a committee of clergy and Parliament, and that all future ordinances were subject to the authority of the Crown.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_20">21</a>
The death of&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/58070815" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="William Warham (1450&#8211;1532)">William Warham (1450&#8211;1532)</a>, archbishop of Canterbury, on 22 August 1532 provided Henry with an opportunity to ensure that his measure were not only sanctioned by Parliament but promoted within the Church itself. Probably as a conciliatory gesture and to avoid further provoking the king, Thomas Cranmer, already appointed by the Crown, was officially proclaimed archbishop of Canterbury by the pope in February 1533 and consecrated on 30 March. Already in January Cranmer had summoned the king once more to plead his case before an archiepiscopal court. On 23 May Cranmer declared the marriage between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon to be null and void and affirmed the validity of the king's marriage to Anne Boleyn. The ceremony had already taken place in secret, and a daughter,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/97107753" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Elisabeth I of England (1533&#8211;1603)">Elizabeth (1533&#8211;1603)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/elisabeth-i-of-england-153320131603" title="Elisabeth I of England (1533&#8211;1603)">[<img alt="Elisabeth I. (1533&#8211;1603) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/franzoesische-religionskriege-als-medienereignis-bilderordner/elisabeth-i.-153320131603-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Elisabeth I. (1533&#8211;1603) IMG">]</a>, was born in September.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_21">22</a> Although what was later called the "Reformation Parliament" first met in 1529 and had already passed several acts dissolving the canonical links tying the provinces of Canterbury and York to the Holy See, Henry long shied away from a complete break with the papacy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_22">23</a> On 3 November 1534, however, Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy, conferring on the monarch the title of Supreme Head of the Church of England without the qualifications imposed by the Convocation in 1531. Henry VIII thus became the first European monarch to break with the papacy completely and to establish an independent national Church. The highest price was paid by Thomas More, the former Lord Chancellor, and by&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/266081375" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John Fisher (1469&#8211;1535)">John Fisher (1469&#8211;1535)</a>, bishop of Rochester. More had already been arrested in April 1534 for his refusal to swear an oath to the First Succession Act and was executed on Tower Hill on 6 July 1535. Fisher had already been executed for high treason on 22 June.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_23">24</a> The English Church had now been freed from papal jurisdiction and royal authority consolidated, the Church's administration and doctrine both now placed under the control of the Crown. A process tentatively begun by Henry VIII in the early 1530s and pursued with increasing vigour culminated in 1534 in a raft of legislation that created a unique connection between Crown and Church. Although the two institutions had been closely interwoven in both their structure and jurisdiction even before the Reformation, this model was unprecedented. As head of the Church of England, Henry VIII was keen to impose order on his realm, and subsequent legislation fleshed out the doctrine of royal supremacy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_24">25</a> Nonetheless, the doctrine was passionately supported even by the more conservative bishops, with&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/54292111" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Stephen Gardiner (1482&#8211;1555)">Stephen Gardiner's (1482&#8211;1555)</a> treatise De Vera Obedientia (1535) a case in point.

How reform-minded was Henry VIII really? This question admits of no simple answer. Although his wish to marry Anne Boleyn provided the king with an occasion to break with the Roman Church, it failed to resolve the underlying problem of the royal succession. Anne herself fell out of favour and was executed on charges including adultery and high treason. The king's third wife,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/15631808" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Jane Seymour (1508&#8211;1537)">Jane Seymour (1508&#8211;1537)</a> finally gave birth to the longed-for male heir, the later&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/67259838" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Edward VI of England (1537&#8211;1553)">Edward VI (1537&#8211;1553)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/edward-vi-of-england-153720131553" title="Edward VI of England (1537&#8211;1553)">[<img alt="Edward VI of England" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/edward-vi-of-englang/@@images/image/thumb" title="Edward VI of England">]</a>, in October 1537. Yet Henry himself ensured that the future course of the Ecclesia Anglicana remained unpredictable, as evidenced by the king's idiosyncratic religious policy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_25">26</a> After 1534, Henry had Lutherans burned at the stake as heretics while also executing Catholics who rejected royal supremacy and remained loyal to the pope. Yet Henry considered himself a Catholic ruler and made no efforts to abolish the Latin mass, the seven sacraments or other traditional doctrines. However, this did not stop English churchmen from entering into negotiations with Continental reformers and especially with Lutheran princes who looked to England for support in their struggles with the Holy Roman Emperor. Archbishop Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell both to some degree sympathised with Lutheran ideas, which they sought to adapt for the English Church. Although these contacts were inconclusive and ultimately abandoned &#8211; not least, it seems, due the king's dislike of the Protestants &#8211; the teachings of the newly independent Church of England formulated around this time, such as the Ten Articles, for the first time display clear Reformation influences. But the king continued to intervene whenever he was personally averse to a particular theological doctrine and in 1540 returned to a distinctly conservative policy with a view to ending England's isolation and repairing relations with the Catholic powers of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4018145-5">France</a> and the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/2035457-5">Holy Roman Empire</a>. This meant a setback for the reforming forces at court and above all for his chief minister, Thomas Cromwell, who was executed after arranging the king's disastrous fourth marriage to&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/84032165" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Anne of Cleves (1515&#8211;1557)">Anne of Cleves (1515&#8211;1557)</a>. Moreover, the Third Succession Act of 1543 returned Mary and Elisabeth Tudor to the succession behind their half-brother Edward.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_26">27</a> Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547. His kingdom had been rocked by religious change, with centuries-old traditions abolished &#8211; sometimes incrementally, as in the divine service; sometimes violently, as with the dissolution of the monastery. The various factions at court were accordingly eager to win the new king over to their cause at any cost.
<h2>Reform under Edward VI</h2>
Since Edward VI was only nine when he acceded to the throne and never reached the age of majority, power throughout his reign was exercised by a regency council governing in the king's name. The influential dukes of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/97785246/">Northumberland</a> and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/24947105/">Somerset</a> (the latter was the king's uncle) now openly declared themselves in favour of Protestant reform.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_27">28</a> They found supporters in Archbishop Cranmer and other bishops, including&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/19716290" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Nicholas Ridley (1500&#8211;1555)">Nicholas Ridley (1500&#8211;1555)</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/45098193" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Hugh Latimer (1485&#8211;1555)">Hugh Latimer (1485&#8211;1555)</a>, who were keen to align the English Church doctrinally and liturgically with Continental reform movements. By this time, the ideas of such Swiss reformers as&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/56624475" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Heinrich Bullinger (1504&#8211;1575)">Heinrich Bullinger (1504&#8211;1575)</a>,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/71399367" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ulrich Zwingli (1484&#8211;1531)">Ulrich Zwingli (1484&#8211;1531)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/huldrych-zwingli-148420131531" title="Huldrych Zwingli (1484&#8211;1531)">[<img alt="Huldrych Zwingli (1484&#8211;1531) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/church-discipline-bilderordner/huldrych-zwingli-148420131531-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Huldrych Zwingli (1484&#8211;1531) IMG">]</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/90631825" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John Calvin (1509&#8211;1564)">John Calvin (1509&#8211;1564)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/john-calvin-150920131564" title="John Calvin (1509&#8211;1564)">[<img alt="John Calvin (1509&#8211;1564) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/church-discipline-bilderordner/john-calvin-150920131564-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="John Calvin (1509&#8211;1564) IMG">]</a> had become increasingly influential in England. The publication of a Protestant-inflected Book of Homilies<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/sermons-or-homilies-1683" title="Sermons or Homilies 1683"><img alt="Sermons or Homilies" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/sermons-or-homilies/@@images/image/thumb" title="Sermons or Homilies"></a> was followed in August 1547 by a set of injunctions prohibiting processions and ordering the destruction of shrines and the removal of images from church interiors. However, rather than being carried out in an orderly manner, these injunctions set off a wave of iconoclasm in churches throughout the country.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_28">29</a> Chantries were abolished and their assets claimed by the Crown. Moreover, the lessons and the Gospel were to be read in English during the mass, whose character as sacrifice the reformers found particularly objectionable. Flanked by further acts of Parliament, in 1548 Cranmer &#8211; probably influenced by the idea of&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/2478527" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Martin Bucer (1491&#8211;1551)">Martin Bucer (1491&#8211;1551)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/martin-bucer-149120131551" title="Martin Bucer (1491&#8211;1551)">[<img alt="Martin Bucer (1491&#8211;1551) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/church-discipline-bilderordner/martin-bucer-149120131551-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Martin Bucer (1491&#8211;1551) IMG">]</a>,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/76319978" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Philipp Melanchthon (1497&#8211;1560)">Philipp Melanchthon (1497&#8211;1560)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/philipp-melanchthon-1497-1560" title="Philipp Melanchthon (1497&#8211;1560)">[<img alt="Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/galen-rezeption-im-16.-jahrhundert-am-beispiel-philipp-melanchtons/philipp-melanchthon-1497-1560-_img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) IMG">]</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/71607602" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Hermann von Wied (1477&#8211;1552)">Hermann von Wied (1477&#8211;1552)</a>, archbishop of Cologne &#8211; published a new Order of the Communion which, though it implemented a core demand of the Reformation by stipulating communion in both kinds for clergy and laity alike, adhered to the traditional forms in many other respects.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_29">30</a> In spite of this initially only tentative departure from precedent, the growing influence of reform-minded theologians on Cranmer in this period is palpable. Among those who had come to England at Cranmer's invitation by 1549 were Bucer himself, the former Augustinian monk&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95213458" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499&#8211;1562)">Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499&#8211;1562)</a> and the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4046496-9">Pole</a> <a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/41986488" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John &#224; Lasco (1499&#8211;1560)">John &#224; Lasco (1499&#8211;1560)</a>. These reformers enjoyed the favour of both king and archbishop, and hence were able to promote the new&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/jordan-ballor-w-bradford-littlejohn-european-calvinism-church-discipline" title="European Calvinism: Church Discipline">doctrines</a>, not least from chairs at the growing universities of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4044234-2">Oxford</a> (Peter Martyr) and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4009351-7">Cambridge</a> (Bucer).<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_30">31</a>
Following the reformers' large-scale attack on the English people's still largely intact (Catholic) spirituality in 1547 &#8211; the removal of images and shrines, the abolition of votive masses &#8211; doubts began to be raised whether the boy king himself endorsed this increasingly radical agenda. Angered by such insinuations, Somerset's government issued, in the king's name, a new Order of the Communion in 1548, with a preface enjoining obedience to royal authority. The purpose was to prepare the people for further changes. In January 1549, Parliament passed the First Act of Uniformity, establishing as the sole legal form of worship The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of Sacraments, and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church after the Use of the Church of England<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/the-book-of-common-prayer-1549" title="The Book of Common Prayer, 1549"><img alt="Book of Common Prayer 1549 IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/book-of-common-prayer-1549-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Book of Common Prayer 1549 IMG"></a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_31">32</a> The Book of Common Prayer (or Prayer Book for short) was to be used in all churches from Whit Sunday, 9 June 1549. The central communion service even continued to be referred as the mass (The Supper of the Lord and the Holy Communion, commonly called the Mass) &#8211; though the elevation of the consecrated elements was omitted &#8211; and such terms as priest and altar were left&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/de/threads/crossroads/religionsraeume-und-konfessionsraeume/ruth-slenczka-die-gestaltende-wirkung-von-abendmahlslehre-und-abendmahlspraxis-im-16-jahrhundert" title="Die gestaltende Wirkung von Abendmahlslehre und Abendmahlspraxis im 16. Jahrhundert">unchanged</a>. In composing this liturgy, Cranmer drew not only on reformed doctrines but also on a variety of older sources, notably the mediaeval Use of Sarum. Foreign influences can also be identified. The Daily Office incorporates texts by the Spanish cardinal&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/54138417" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Francisco de Qui&#241;ones (1480&#8211;1540)">Francisco de Qui&#241;ones (1480&#8211;1540)</a>. Fragments of a now lost old Spanish baptismal rite and texts from the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4022047-3">Greek</a> Orthodox tradition were also adapted, just as Cranmer had already incorporated prayers of St&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/305214868" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="St John Chrysostom (344&#8211;407)">John Chrysostom (344&#8211;407)</a> in his English Litany of 1544.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_32">33</a> Cranmer, the Prayer Book's reform-minded principal author, believed such traditional elements were to be retained for reasons of good order but might, in due course, be allowed to wither away. Under this aspect, the novelty of the Prayer Book lay not so much in its substance as in its form. For the first time, the Church of England had a book of liturgy in which all rites and ceremonies were provided in the vernacular rather than in Latin, thereby making them comprehensible to the people at large.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_33">34</a> Although the Prayer Book, for all its ambiguities in theology and liturgical practice, was clearly a Protestant work, it fell short of the demands of some reformers, especially those from <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4053881-3">Switzerland</a>, who called for more radical changes and forced the archbishop of Canterbury to begin work on a revision.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_34">35</a> A second Act of Uniformity, passed in April 1552, confirmed a stricter commitment to establishing Protestant observances in England. The revised Prayer Book was to come into force on All Saints' Day, 1 November 1552. It represented a significant departure from the 1549 version in many important respects. Communicants were to proceed from the nave to the chancel, where the eucharist was centred no longer on the altar but rather on a plain communion table. Here they knelt to receive leavened bread instead of the traditional host. Instead of eucharistic vestments, the priest was to wear only a simple white surplice and a tippet, popularly known as a "preaching scarf". The intervention of the Scottish reformer&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/100199622" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John Knox (1514&#8211;1572)">John Knox (1514&#8211;1572)</a> led to the notorious "Black Rubric" being appended to the communion service, making it clear that the act of kneeling was not to imply any adoration of Christ's corporal presence. While the everyday religious experience of the people was thus gradually being recast in a reformed mould, Edward VI died unexpectedly on 6 June 1553. Once again, the question of the succession threatened to divide the country.
<h2>The reaction under Mary I</h2>
By the beginning of Queen Mary's reign, there could be doubt that Protestantism had become a powerful force in England. Yet nor could there be any doubt that in 1553 by far the larger part of the population remained steeped in the old religion. On 27 August 1553 a service was held in Latin at St Paul's Cathedral<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/old-st.-pauls-cathedral" title="Old St. Paul's Cathedral"><img alt="Die alte St. Paul's Cathedral IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/palladianismus-bilderordner/st.-pauls-cathedral-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die alte St. Paul's Cathedral IMG"></a> for the first time since Edward's death. Contemporary observers were certain that Mary sought to return her kingdom to the Roman Church.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_35">36</a> Stephen Gardiner, who had been imprisoned in the Tower (with interruptions) since 1548, was released shortly before Mary entered London and officiated at the queen's coronation at Westminster Abbey<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/westminster-abbey-1851" title="Westminster Abbey, 1851"><img alt="Westminster Abbey" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/genderraeume/westminster-abbey/@@images/image/thumb" title="Westminster Abbey"></a> on 1 October 1553. Her first measure was to summon a new Parliament, which assembled in the autumn of 1553 and whose first priority was to repeal the religious legislation enacted under Edward VI. While this initiative met with strong resistance, particularly from the Commons, Mary at least succeeded in suspending the Act of Uniformity and in outlawing the Book of Common Prayer before Christmas. Another important question &#8211; and one that had preoccupied Mary's father throughout his reign &#8211; was that of the succession. Mary's mother was Spanish and Charles V had faithfully taken her side throughout the difficulties of the 1530s. Mary's court was hence favourably disposed towards the Habsburgs and chose as her husband the Holy Roman Emperor's eldest (and only legitimate) son,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88973996" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Philip II of Spain (1527&#8211;1598)">Philip II of Spain (1527&#8211;1598)</a>. Negotiations between the two kingdoms duly began and on 25 July 1554 &#8211; the feast of St James, patron saint of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4055964-6">Spain</a> &#8211; were married at <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4367699-6">Winchester</a> Cathedral.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_36">37</a> While the terms of the marriage were being negotiated, the queen issued a series of injunctions, for the first time seeking to suppress heresy and evangelical preaching. Celibacy was restored and more than eight hundred married clergy were deprived in the same year. The episcopate was 'cleansed' of Protestants and such leading prelates as Ridley and Latimer were arrested. More than one thousand Protestants from all sections of society &#8211; nobles, clerics, lawyers and scholars as well as tradesmen &#8211;&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/confessional-migration/ulrich-niggemann-confessional-migration" title="Confessional Migration">fled</a> to the Continent in Mary's reign, most of them to Switzerland, the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042203-3">Netherlands</a> and&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/confessional-migration/harm-klueting-catholic-confessional-migration" title="Catholic Confessional Migration">France</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_37">38</a> The long-serving bishops Gardiner,&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/115145857798523020318" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Cuthbert Tunstall (1474&#8211;1559)">Tunstall</a> and&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/69270288" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Edmund Bonner (1500&#8211;1569)">Bonner</a> were reinstated with thirteen others; twenty more were appointed between 1554 and 1558. These new bishops had been trained in the spirit of the reforming council of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4078405-8">Trent</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/konzil-von-trient" title="Council of Trent in Santa Maria Maggiore church"><img alt="Council of Trent in full session, plate from Patin's &quot;Tabellae selectae ac explicatae&quot; (Padua, Ex Typographia Seminarii, 1691), engraving, ca. 1690, artist unknown; source: &#169; The Trustees of the British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1859-0709-2470, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) licence." class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/die-kirchenunionen-der-fruehen-neuzeit/konzil-von-trient-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Konzil von Trient IMG"></a> and were in many respects quite unlike their career-minded brethren who had been appointed under Henry VIII.
Yet a return of the Church to its state before the Henrician Reformation was complicated by Parliament's continuing refusal to restore papal authority &#8211; not least because doing so would have raised the question of returning to the Church the property confiscated under the two previous reigns. In November 1554 the pope gave assurances that monastic lands would not be reclaimed by the Church. Cardinal&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/37029945" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Reginald Pole (1500&#8211;1558)">Reginald Pole (1500&#8211;1558)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/reginald-pole-150020131558" title="Reginald Pole (1500&#8211;1558)">[<img alt="Reginald Pole (1500&#8211;1558) IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/katholische-konfessionsmigration-bilderordner/reginald-pole-150020131558-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Reginald Pole (1500&#8211;1558) IMG">]</a>, who had been tasked by&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/160149066599265601888" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Pope Julius III (1487&#8211;1555)">Pope Julius III (1487&#8211;1555)</a> with supporting Mary's recatholicisation of England, returned to England later that month, and Parliament met again on 28 November. Now both chambers, with only one dissenting vote, voted for the repeal of all laws contrary to papal supremacy passed by the Reformation Parliament since 1529. Two days later, Parliament again convened at <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4449160-8">Whitehall</a> to participate in a ceremony unique in the history of the English Church: its members knelt before Pole to receive absolution for their disobedience, thereby formally ending the schism begun in 1534. &#160;&#160;
Of greater immediate impact was Parliament's simultaneous decision to reinstate the notorious Suppression of Heresy Act, De heretico comburendo. Originally passed in 1401 under&#160;<a href="https://viaf.org/viaf/42632596" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Henry IV of England (1367&#8211;1413)">Henry IV (1367&#8211;1413)</a> against the Lollards, it was used to justify the burning of more than 300 Protestants under Mary I. Their number included prominent bishops, most notably Cranmer himself, who was burned at the stake in Oxford on 21 March 1556. A new pastoral direction for the episcopate and the clergy at large and a synod led by Pole in 1556 were to promote a renewal of faith in the spirit of the Council of Trent. The difficulty for Mary lay not so much in the restoration of the Catholic faith as such or the return of English Church to full communion with Rome &#8211; which, in spite of Parliament's initial reluctance, were soon accomplished with no further protest &#8211; as in the necessity of placing these achievements on a permanent footing.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_38">39</a> Mary died childless on 17 November 1558, only a few hours before Cardinal Pole. Mary had set herself the task of re-establishing both the old religion and papal supremacy in England. In neither did she achieve lasting success, though she did succeed in ensuring that Roman Catholicism endured in England, albeit as a persecuted minority. When her half-sister Elizabeth ascended to the throne, the bishops appointed by Mary almost to a man refused to take the oath of supremacy and were duly deposed.
<h2>Consolidation under Elizabeth I and dynastic change</h2>
Mary was succeeded on her death by her half-sister Elizabeth. Aged only 25, she was to be the last of the Tudors and faced the challenge of uniting a country divided by religious and political conflict. Supported by two of her closest advisers &#8211;&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88788847" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="William Cecil (1520&#8211;1598)">William Cecil (1520&#8211;1598)</a> and his brother-in law&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/8187652" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Nicholas Bacon (1509&#8211;1579)">Nicholas Bacon (1509&#8211;1579)</a> &#8211; Elizabeth sought for a second time to consolidate the established Church along distinctly Protestant lines.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_39">40</a> The revolution of 1559 began when Parliament met on 25 January, initiating the process which would go down in the ecclesiastical history of England as the Elizabethan Religious Settlement.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_40">41</a> Although the term might suggest a striving for consensus, the Crown was clearly "keen to stabilise both its hold on power and its religious policy".<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_41">42</a> The balance of power in the House of Lords had shifted, allowing the Crown to achieve its legislative aims by April. The Second Act of Supremacy re-established the supremacy of the Crown over the Church; the Third Act of Uniformity reinstated the Book of Common Prayer as the Church of England's sole authorised liturgy. It was passed, however, only by a narrow majority. The provisions of the Elizabethan Settlement pointed in a clearly Protestant direction. Although some formulations suggested a certain willingness to compromise, scholarship has been divided on the question of whom they were addressed to. For instance, the Second Act of Supremacy gave the monarch the title of "Supreme Governor of the Church" instead of the potentially blasphemous "Supreme Head" claimed by Henry VIII. Yet Elizabeth continued to seize Church assets, notably the few religious foundations and chantries founded under Mary I, for the benefit of the exchequer.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_42">43</a>
The Prayer Book reinstated by Parliament was based on that of 1552, with a few changes: the Black Rubric was omitted and an Ornaments Rubric, regulating the use of vestments, adopted. Of considerable theological significance were the words used in delivering the sacrament to communicants. Here, the words of the 1549 Prayer Book were added to those of 1552, thereby steering a course between conservative or Lutheran and Calvinist views of Christ's presence in the consecrated elements. The Royal Injunctions of June 1559 took a moderate line on images and on the removal of altars while stipulating the erection of plain communion tables in every church. This was not enough to satisfy the so-called Puritans who were now returning to England from exile under Queen Mary in large numbers to preach the "pure Gospel", i.e. that interpreted along strictly Calvinist lines. In their rejection of the religious status quo and of the English Church as still "unreformed", they posed a standing challenge to the queen's religious policy.
Another element in the structure of an established Church which, following Elizabeth's preference, was to be governed by bishops &#8211; led by Matthew Parker, who had been appointed to the see of Canterbury in August 1559 &#8211; were the Thirty-nine Articles. The Thirty-nine Articles formed part of long line of doctrinal statements. Their theology is clearly indebted to Reformed Protestantism and may be regarded as an attempt to reconcile the varying traditions of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4057878-1">Strasbourg</a>, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4020137-5">Geneva</a>, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4068038-1">Zurich</a> and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4066640-2">Wittenberg</a>, steering a via media between them.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_43">44</a> The doctrine of predestination remained a particularly contentious point, and certain phrasings once more underscored the distinctive ambiguity of the Elizabethan Church. On the other hand, the solemn liturgy enshrined in the Prayer Book remained close to Catholic views and seems to have reflected the queen's own preferences. Yet even the Elizabethan Prayer Book's liturgical ordinances proved controversial, with the Puritans continuing to take exception to its emphasis on outward forms and what they regarded as adiaphora ("things indifferent") or indeed as positively "popish" and "ungodly".
The 1560s and 70s saw several controversies between the episcopate and the "godly", the title given to themselves by England's strict Calvinists. These intra-Protestant arguments culminated in the 1570s in the growth of Presbyterianism, which arrived in England as an import from Calvinist Geneva. It proved particular influential in Scotland, where it was spread by John Knox. Yet Knox and his fellow Calvinists found England to be less welcoming. With "disastrous mistiming",<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_44">45</a> Knox had published, in 1558, a pamphlet entitled The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. Though initially aimed at Mary, Knox restated his tirade against any form of female rule, affirming that he meant it to apply equally to Elizabeth<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_45">46</a> The Elizabethan Church was to remain divided between Puritans and Anglicans for the remainder of the queen's reign, and the queen herself took an increasingly strict line with dissent as she grew older. Elizabeth had been excommunicated in February 1570 by&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/89607114" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Pope Pius V (1504&#8211;1572)">Pope Pius V (1504&#8211;1572)</a>, which contributed to a worsening of relations with Spain, the great Catholic power.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_46">47</a> In 1588 King Philip II made what is perhaps history's most famous attempt at an invasion, sending the Spanish Armada to against England only to be&#160;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/douglas-carl-peifer-transfer-of-military-and-naval-technology-1325-1650" title="Transfer of Military and Naval Technology 1325&#8211;1650">defeated</a> at the battle of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4021900-8">Gravelines</a>. Elizabeth died childless on 24 March 1603, marking the end of the Tudor dynasty. The English crown now passed to the ruling house of Scotland, the Stuarts, who established a personal union between the kingdoms, the Union of the Crowns. Under&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88905668" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="James VI and I of England (1566&#8211;1625)">James VI and I (1566&#8211;1625)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/james-i-of-england-james-vi-of-scotland-156620131625" title="James I of England (James VI of Scotland)">[<img alt="Jakob I. von England IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/jakob-i-von-england/@@images/image/thumb" title="Jakob I. von England IMG">]</a>, whose Scottish kingdom had been predominantly Calvinist since the 1560s, there was a partial rapprochement between the two kingdoms' established Protestant Churches. James also largely succeeded in keeping his dominions outside the religious strife of the Thirty Years' <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event">War</a>, burnishing his image as rex pacificus. Yet this neutral stance was not universally admired, least of all by the Puritan opposition. This led once more to increased tension between different currents of Protestantism, not least in Scotland, where the Presbyterians staunchly rejected James's scheme to impose episcopacy on his northern kingdom. This conflict between Anglicans loyal to the king and the radical Puritans plagued successive Stuart monarchs and culminated in the English Civil <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/warfare-1450-1789/aaron-graham-warfare-1450-1789" title="Warfare (1450&#8211;1789)">War </a>(1642&#8211;1651), which led to the abolition of both the monarchy and the established Church. Both were restored under&#160;<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/88984774" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charles II of England (1630&#8211;1685)">Charles II (1630&#8211;1685)</a><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/mediainfo/charles-ii-of-england-163020131685" title="Charles II of England (1630&#8211;1685)">[<img alt="King Charles II IMG" class="image-richtext image-inline" src="./illustrationen/reformation-in-england-bilderordner/king-charles-ii-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="King Charles II IMG">]</a>, who returned to the throne in 1660 and achieved a precarious settlement &#8211; not least by introducing, in 1662, the version of the Prayer Book that remains in use today.
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
England offers a particularly vivid example of 16th-century Church reform as a many-layered process encompassing both continuity and discontinuity. Under the Tudors in particular, this resulted in the successful embedding of the Church in the gradually emerging structures of an early modern polity. This included divine service itself, which under royal supremacy was disciplined and given the task of enforcing the reforms introduced by the Crown. While the Protestant label has been somewhat superficially applied to the liturgical and doctrinal changes made under Henry VIII, whose theological conservatism remained the defining force, it was a different matter in the second stage of the Reformation, in which root-and-branch change was promoted by such figures as Archbishop Cranmer in England or, more comprehensively still, John Knox in Scotland. Yet it is worth remembering that ritual and doctrinal uniformity in the emergent national Churches was always more of an ideal than a reality. Despite the introduction of binding liturgies, most notably the Book of Common Prayer in its several revisions, Protestantism itself was plagued by disputes within and between its various currents. These divisions deepened in the later 1500s and continued to destabilise the Church of England throughout the 17th century.
Although the contentious issues changed over time, the Crown's struggle to impose a religious settlement continued to revolve around one defining question which the Puritans consistently answered in the negative: whether the English Reformation had been sufficiently thorough. The fact that demands for further-reaching reform of the Church often succeeded in the face of opposition from the Crown testifies the religious-political dynamic underlying events &#8211; a dynamic that left a profound mark on the histories of England, Scotland and Ireland for nearly two centuries. Particularly in adapting and transforming liturgies, Anglicanism turned out to more than simply a golden mean or via media between Roman Catholicism and Genevan Calvinism, but rather emerged as the prototype of adaptable independent state Church which was able to establish itself on a permanent footing in the course of the European Reformation.
<a href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7632157704219244440007" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Philipp Wei&#223;">Philipp Wei&#223;</a>
</div> <h2>Appendix</h2>
<h3>Sources</h3>
Bray, Gerald (ed.): Documents of the English Reformation, Cambridge 1994. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvss3z15">https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvss3z15</a> [2026-03-23]
<h3>Literature</h3>
Barrie-Curien, Viviane: Die anglikanische Reformation: Die Reformation auf den Britischen Inseln, in: Marc Venard et al. (eds.): Die Zeit der Konfessionen (1530&#8211;1620/30), Freiburg im Breisgau 1992 (Geschichte des Christentums 8), pp. 191&#8211;238.
Berg, Dieter: Die Tudors: England und der Kontinent im 16. Jahrhundert, Stuttgart 2016. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.17433/978-3-17-025671-2">https://doi.org/10.17433/978-3-17-025671-2</a> [2026-03-23]
Berg, Dieter: Heinrich VIII. von England: Leben &#8211; Herrschaft &#8211; Wirkung, Stuttgart 2013. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.17433/978-3-17-023496-3">https://doi.org/10.17433/978-3-17-023496-3</a> [2026-03-23]
Dickens, Arthur G.: The English Reformation, London 1964. URL:&#160;<a href="https://archive.org/details/englishreformati0000dick_o6l9">https://archive.org/details/englishreformati0000dick_o6l9</a> [2026-03-23]
Eire, Carlos M. N.: Reformations: The Early Modern World, 1450&#8211;1650, New Haven 2016. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300220681">https://doi.org/10.12987/9780300220681</a> [2026-03-23]
Haigh, Christopher: English Reformations: Religion, Politics and Society under the Tudors, Oxford 1993. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb01871.0001.001">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb01871.0001.001</a> [2026-03-23]
Jeanes, Gordon: Cranmer and Common Prayer, in: Charles Hefling et al. (eds.): The Oxford Guide to The Book of Common Prayer: A Worldwide Survey, Oxford 2006, pp. 21&#8211;28.
Loades, David M.: Relations between the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches in the 16th and 17th Centuries, in: John C.H. Aveling et al. (eds.): Rome and the Anglicans: Historical and Doctrinal Aspects of Anglican &#8211; Roman Catholic Relations, edited with a postscript by Wolfgang Haase, Berlin et al. 1982, pp. 1&#8211;53. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110861655-001">https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110861655-001</a> [2026-03-23]
MacCulloch, Diarmaid: Die Reformation 1490&#8211;1700, Munich 2010.
MacCulloch, Diarmaid: Die zweite Phase der englischen Reformation (1547&#8211;1603) und die Geburt der anglikanischen Via Media, M&#252;nster 1998 (Katholisches Leben und Kirchenreform im Zeitalter der Glaubensspaltung 58).
MacCulloch, Diarmaid: The Later Reformation in England 2001. Second edition. Basingstoke 2001.
MacCulloch, Diarmaid (ed.): The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy and Piety, Basingstoke 1995. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-24214-6">https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-24214-6</a> [2026-03-23]
Marshall, Peter: Reformation England 1480&#8211;1642, London 2012.
Maurer, Michael: Kleine Geschichte Englands, Stuttgart 2007.
Rex, Richard: Die Tudors, tr. Markus R&#252;ttermann, Essen 2006.
Rex, Richard: Henry VIII and the English Reformation, Basingstoke 2006.
Schnitker, Thaddaeus A.: The church's worship: the 1979 American Book of common prayer in a historical perspective, Frankfurt 1989 (Europ&#228;ische Hochschulschriften 23, vol. 351).
Sheils, William J.: The English Reformation 1530&#8211;1570, Harlow 2001. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315839783">https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315839783</a> [2026-03-23]
Spinks, Bryan D.: Liturgy and Worship, in: Anthony Milton (ed.): The Oxford History of Anglicanism, Oxford 2017, vol. 1: Reformation and Identity, c. 1520&#8211;1662, pp. 148&#8211;167.
Wilson, Derek: A Brief History of the English Reformation, London 2012.
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ol id="InsertNote_NoteList" type="1">
<li id="InsertNoteID_0"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_0_marker1">^</a> This article is partly based on the author's doctoral thesis, "Take thou authority to preach the word of God &#8211; Das anglikanische Ordinal von 1662 als konfessionelles Paradigma? Eine liturgiehistorische und theologische Untersuchung", submitted to the University of Vienna in February 2025. The relevant passages have been expanded and brought up to date for this publication.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_1"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_1_marker2">^</a> Eire, Reformations 2016, p. 354.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_2"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_2_marker3">^</a> Maurer, Kleine Geschichte Englands 2007, p. 84.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_3"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_3_marker4">^</a> Rex, Henry VIII 2006, pp. 28f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_4"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_4_marker5">^</a> Loades, Relations between the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches 1982, pp. 3f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_5"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_5_marker6">^</a> MacCulloch, The Reign of Henry VIII 1995, p. 160.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_6"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_6_marker7">^</a> Berg, Heinrich VIII. 2013, pp. 164f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_7"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_7_marker8">^</a> It is worth noting that the White Horse Tavern, the meeting place of severa reform-minded groups, was known for a time as "Little Germany". Haigh, English Reformations 1993, p. 58.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_8"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_8_marker9">^</a> Wilson, A Brief History 2012, p. 93; Haigh, English Reformations 1993, pp. 58f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_9"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_9_marker10">^</a> Haigh, English Reformations 1993, p. 60.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_10"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_10_marker11">^</a> Marshall, Reformation England 2012, p. 32.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_11"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_11_marker12">^</a> Haigh, English Reformations 1993, pp. 89f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_12"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_12_marker13">^</a> Haigh, English Reformations 1993, p. 93.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_13"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_13_marker14">^</a> Maurer, Kleine Geschichte Englands 2007, p. 98.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_14"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_14_marker15">^</a> To grant the English king's request for an annulment might have had far-reaching consequences for the bishop of Rome, who was reluctant to side against Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of Europe's most powerful ruler.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_15"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_15_marker16">^</a> Marshall, Reformation England 2012, pp. 38&#8211;40.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_16"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_16_marker17">^</a> Berg, Heinrich VIII. 2013, p. 167.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_17"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_17_marker18">^</a> Haigh, English Reformations 1993, p. 100.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_18"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_18_marker19">^</a> Marshall, Reformation England 2012, pp. 41f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_19"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_19_marker20">^</a> Haigh, English Reformations 1993, pp. 106&#8211;109.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_20"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_20_marker21">^</a> Haigh, English Reformations 1993, pp. 110&#8211;114.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_21"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_21_marker22">^</a> Rex, Henry VIII 2006, p. 11.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_22"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_22_marker23">^</a> Rex, Henry VIII 2006, p. 14.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_23"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_23_marker24">^</a> Haigh, English Reformations 1993, pp. 120f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_24"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_24_marker25">^</a> Rex, Henry VIII 2006, pp. 16f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_25"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_25_marker26">^</a> Maurer, Kleine Geschichte Englands 2007, 105.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_26"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_26_marker27">^</a> Maurer, Kleine Geschichte Englands 2007, pp. 106f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_27"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_27_marker28">^</a> Rex, Die Tudors 2006, pp. 110&#8211;112.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_28"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_28_marker29">^</a> Schnitker, The Church's Worship 1989, pp. 15f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_29"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_29_marker30">^</a> Spinks, Liturgy and Worship 2017, p. 153.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_30"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_30_marker31">^</a> Sheils, English Reformation 2001, p. 41; Barrie-Curien, Die anglikanische Reformation 1992, pp. 220f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_31"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_31_marker32">^</a> Schnitker, The Church's Worship 1989, p. 17.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_32"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_32_marker33">^</a> Jeanes, Cranmer and Common Prayer 2006, pp. 28&#8211;31.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_33"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_33_marker34">^</a> Nonetheless, the introduction of the Prayer Book sparked local uprisings in Hampshire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and the North Riding of Yorkshire. Haigh, English Reformations 1993, pp. 174f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_34"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_34_marker35">^</a> Marshall, Reformation England 2012, p. 70.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_35"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_35_marker36">^</a> MacCulloch, Die zweite Phase der englischen Reformation 1998, p. 30.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_36"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_36_marker37">^</a> Rex, Die Tudors 2006, pp. 145&#8211;151.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_37"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_37_marker38">^</a> Wilson, A Brief History 2012, p. 301.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_38"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_38_marker39">^</a> Rex, Die Tudors 2006, p. 172.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_39"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_39_marker40">^</a> Maurer, Kleine Geschichte Englands 2007, pp. 129f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_40"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_40_marker41">^</a> Dickens, English Reformation 1964, p. 401.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_41"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_41_marker42">^</a> Berg, Die Tudors 2016, p. 107.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_42"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_42_marker43">^</a> Marshall, Reformation England 2012, p. 126.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_43"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_43_marker44">^</a> Barrie-Curien, Die anglikanische Reformation 1992, p. 227.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_44"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_44_marker45">^</a> MacCulloch, The Later Reformation in England 2001, p. 27.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_45"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_45_marker46">^</a> MacCulloch, Die Reformation 2010, p. 388.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_46"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/philipp-weiss-anglicanism#InsertNoteID_46_marker47">^</a> Rex, Die Tudors 2006, p. 206.</li>
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