EGO | People , Places , Peges

Edit Page

Title

Url

Content

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en" class="en text article">
	<head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
		<meta http-equiv="Access-Control-Allow-Origin" content="*">
		<meta http-equiv="Content-Security-Policy" content="upgrade-insecure-requests">
		<link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/img/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon">
		<link rel="icon" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/img/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon">
		<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/img/apple-touch-icon.png">
		
 
 <link rel="schema.DC" href="https://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/">
 <link rel="schema.DCTERMS" href="https://purl.org/dc/terms/"> 
 	<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1">
		
		<meta http-equiv="content-language" content="de">
		
 <meta name="description" content="When faced, in 1793, with the prospect of defeat, the National Convention issued an appeal for a lev&#233;e en masse, which, theoretically, placed the entire population at the disposal of France's war machine. Thus was born the modern idea of the nation in arms. This concept has proved to have an enduring legacy, and has been adapted to suit a wide variety of contexts and time periods. This article explores the birth, development and transmission of the lev&#233;e en masse. It seeks to understand why the concept survived beyond the 1790s and how it remained a compelling instrument of mass mobilisation in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."><meta name="copyright" content="IEG Mainz">
 
 <meta name="google-site-verification" content="MJGOUQy7My8Aecc8deyTY6HwXqOTYaGiuYJT_gKFf2Y">
 <meta property="fb:admins" content="100001928375895">
 <meta property="og:site_name" content="EGO | Europ&#228;ische Geschichte Online"> 
 <meta property="og:type" content="article"> 
 <meta property="og:email" content="egoredaktion@ieg-mainz.de">
 <meta property="og:phone_number" content="+49 6131 39 393 50">
 <meta property="og:fax_number" content="+49 6131 39 353 26">
 <link rel="alternate" href="https://twitter.com/statuses/user_timeline/234792826.rss" title="Tweets von EGO bei Twitter.com" type="application/rss+xml">
 <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="EGO" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/egosearch.xml">
		
		
		<meta name="application-url" content="https://www.ieg-ego.eu">
 <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://code.jquery.com/ui/1.9.1/themes/base/jquery-ui.css">
		<script type="text/javascript" src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.8.2/jquery.min.js"></script>
		<script type="text/javascript" src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jqueryui/1.9.1/jquery-ui.min.js"></script>
		<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/css_browser_selector.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/flowplayer-3.2.4.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
 <script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/carousel.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		<link rel="Stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/css/screen.css" media="screen, projection"> 
		<link rel="Stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/css/print.css" media="print">
 <link rel="Stylesheet" type="text/css" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/css/carousel.css" media="screen, projection"> 
		<title>Lev&#233;e en Masse &#8212; EGO </title>
	<meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="DC.Title" content="Lev&#233;e en Masse"><meta name="DC.Source" content="EGO(http://www.ieg-ego.eu)"><meta name="DC.Date.Issued" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CTDF" content="2010-12-03"><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="WorldCathttp://www.worldcat.org/oclc/692301387"><meta name="DC.Rights" content="CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works"><meta name="DC.Description" content="When faced, in 1793, with the prospect of defeat, the National Convention issued an appeal for a lev&#233;e en masse, which, theoretically, placed the entire population at the disposal of France's war machine. Thus was born the modern idea of the nation in arms. This concept has proved to have an enduring legacy, and has been adapted to suit a wide variety of contexts and time periods. This article explores the birth, development and transmission of the lev&#233;e en masse. It seeks to understand why the concept survived beyond the 1790s and how it remained a compelling instrument of mass mobilisation in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921155"><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" scheme="DCMIType"><meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" scheme="IMT"><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="generator" content="Plone - http://plone.com"></head>
	<body>
		<iframe id="manifest_iframe_hack" style="display: none;" src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/temporary_manifest_hack.html">
		</iframe> 
		<div id="wrapper" class="container container_9">
		<div id="header" class="grid_9">
			<ul id="topmenu" class="smalltype">
				<li class="first">
					<a href="/en/ego">About EGO</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/contact">Contact</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/impressum">Legal Details</a>
				</li>
				<li class="last">
					<a href="/en/ego/privacy">Privacy</a>
				</li>
			</ul>
			<ul id="languageselect" class="smalltype">
				<li class="first"><a href="/caiania-2010-de?set_language=de&amp;-C=" title="Deutsch">Deutsch</a> |</li>
				<li class="last">English</li>
			</ul>
			<h1 id="sitelogo">
 <a href="/" title="Back to Homepage">
 <img src="/_theme/img/EGO_logotype_en.png" width="174" height="43" alt="EGO - European History Online">
 </a>
 </h1>
			<ul id="mainmenu">
 <li class="first top">Thread&#9662;
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/theories-and-methods">Theories and Methods</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/backgrounds">Backgrounds</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/crossroads">Crossroads</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes">Models and Stereotypes</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/europe-on-the-road">Europe on the Road</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/european-media">European Media</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/european-networks">European Networks</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/transnational-movements-and-organisations">Transnational Movements and Organisations</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/alliances-and-wars">Alliances and Wars</a></li>
						<li><a href="/en/threads/europe-and-the-world">Europe and the World</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
 <li class="top">Area&#9662;
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=1&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="area included in the basins of the Danube, Elbe, and Rhine rivers">Central Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=0&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="Albania, Bulgaria, European part of Turkey, Yugoslavia">Balkan Peninsula</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=5&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="region extending from the western borders of Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, and Slovenia eastward to the Ural Mountains">Eastern Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=2&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, &#197;land, the Faroe Islands, Jan Mayen and Svalbard, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania)">Northern Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=4&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Great Britain, Ireland">Western Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=3&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending" title="Iberian Peninsula, Italian Peninsula, Southern Balkan Peninsula, Mediterranean States (Malta, Cyprus)">Southern Europe</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;area=6&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Non-European World</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
 <li class="top">Topic&#9662;
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=0&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Education, Sciences</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=1&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Arts</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=2&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Social Matters, Society</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=3&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Politics</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=4&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Law, Constitution</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=5&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Religion</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=11&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Military</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=6&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Migration, Travel</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=7&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Media, Communication</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=8&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Agents, Intermediaries</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=9&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Theory, Methodology</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;topic=10&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">Economy, Technology</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
				<li class="last top">Time&#9662;
					<ul>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1450+OR+1460+OR+1470+OR+1480+OR+1490&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">15th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1500+OR+1510+OR+1520+OR+1530+OR+1540+OR+1550+OR+1560+OR+1570+OR+1580+OR+1590&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">16th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1600+OR+1610+OR+1620+OR+1630+OR+1640+OR+1650+OR+1660+OR+1670+OR+1680+OR+1690&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">17th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1700+OR+1710+OR+1720+OR+1730+OR+1740+OR+1750+OR+1760+OR+1770+OR+1780+OR+1790&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">18th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1800+OR+1810+OR+1820+OR+1830+OR+1840+OR+1850+OR+1860+OR+1870+OR+1880+OR+1890&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">19th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=1900+OR+1910+OR+1920+OR+1930+OR+1940+OR+1950+OR+1960+OR+1970+OR+1980+OR+1990&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">20th Century</a></li>
						<li><a href="/search?portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe&amp;timeframe=2000+OR+2010&amp;sort_on=effective&amp;sort_order=descending">21st Century</a></li>
					</ul>
				</li>
			</ul>
			<div id="quicksearch">
 <form method="get" action="/search">
 <fieldset>
 <input id="qs_query" class="searchPage" type="text" name="SearchableText" data-alt="Search" value="Search"><input class="submit" type="submit" name="submit" value=" ">
 <input type="hidden" name="portal_type" value="Site">
 <input type="hidden" name="Title" value="freigabe">
 <input type="hidden" name="set_language" value="en">
 </fieldset>
 </form>
				<a id="advancedsearch" class="smalltype" href="/advanced_search?set_language=en">Advanced Search</a>
			</div>
 </div> 
		<div class="clear">&#160;</div>
		<div id="main">
			<div id="side" class="grid_2 hyphenate">
				
			<ul id="threadnavigation" class="navTree navTreeLevel0">
 <li class="navTreeItem navTreeTopNode nav-section-alliances-and-wars">
 
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars" title="" class="contenttype-folder">
 
 Alliances and Wars
 </a>
 
 <ul>

&#160;
 
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties" title="" class="state-published navTreeFolderish contenttype-folder">

Alliances and Treaties
 </a>
 
 
 <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel1">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/emrah-safa-gurkan-christian-allies-of-the-ottoman-empire" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-alan-sharp-collective-security">

Collective Security
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-inken-schmidt-voges-european-peace-processes-in">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/inken-schmidt-voges-european-peace-processes-in-the-pre-modern-era" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Peace Processes in the Pre-Modern Era
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-andrew-thompson-the-grand-alliances">

The Grand Alliances
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-philip-martin-rink-transfer-of-military">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/philip-martin-rink-transfer-of-military-organizations-and-institutions" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Transfer of Military Organizations and Institutions
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-douglas-carl-peifer-transfer-of-military-and-naval">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/alliances-and-treaties/douglas-carl-peifer-transfer-of-military-and-naval-technology-1325-1650" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Transfer of Military Technology
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>

</ul>
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeItemInPath selected expanded navTreeFolderish section-war-as-an-agent-of-transfer">

&#160;
 
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer" title="" class="state-published navTreeItemInPath selected expanded navTreeFolderish contenttype-folder">

War as an Agent of Transfer
 </a>
 
 
 <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel1">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/john-childs-barracks-and-conscription-civil-military-relations-in-europe-from-1500" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Civil Military Relations
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeItemInPath selected expanded navTreeFolderish section-conscription">

&#160;
 
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription" title="" class="state-published navTreeItemInPath selected expanded navTreeFolderish contenttype-folder">

Conscription
 </a>
 
 
 <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel2">

&#160;
		 
 
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse" title="" class="state-published navTreeCurrentItem navTreeCurrentItem navTreeCurrentNode selected expanded this contenttype-site">

Lev&#233;e en Masse
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>

</ul>
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/ulrich-keller-the-image-of-war-the-crimean-war-1853-1856" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Crimean War
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-christian-goetter-the-first-world-war-as-a-media">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/christian-goetter-the-first-world-war-as-a-media-event" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

First World War
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-kriegsberichterstattung-kriegsberichterstatter">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/kriegsberichterstattung-kriegsberichterstatter-kriegsberichterstattung-kriegsberichterstatter-be-freigabe" title="" class="state-missing-value contenttype-link">

Kriegsberichterstattung, Kriegsberichterstatter
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-olaf-peters-krieg-und-nachkrieg-zur-aesthetischen">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/olaf-peters-krieg-und-nachkrieg-zur-aesthetischen-reflexion-der-gewalt-1800-1937" title="" class="state-missing-value contenttype-link">

Krieg und "Nachkrieg"
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-sibylle-scheipers-prisoners-and-detainees-in-war">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/sibylle-scheipers-prisoners-and-detainees-in-war" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Prisoners in War
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeFolderish section-religionskriege">

&#160;
 
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/religionskriege" title="" class="state-published navTreeFolderish contenttype-folder">

Religionskriege*
 </a>
 
 
 <ul class="navTree navTreeLevel2">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/religionskriege/die-franzoesischen-religionskriege-als-medienereignisse-vermittlung-und-rezeption-am-beispiel-gabriel-harveys-die-franzoesischen-religionskriege-als-medienereignisse-ve-freigabe" title="" class="state-missing-value contenttype-link">

Die Franz&#246;sischen Religionskriege als Medienereignisse
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-religionskriege-1500-1648-religionskriege-be">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/religionskriege/religionskriege-1500-1648-religionskriege-be-vorankundigung" title="" class="state-missing-value contenttype-link">

Religionskriege*
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>

</ul>
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-frederick-c-schneid-the-french-revolutionary-and">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/frederick-c-schneid-the-french-revolutionary-and-napoleonic-wars" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker section-a-w-purdue-the-transformative-impact-of-world-war">

<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/a-w-purdue-the-transformative-impact-of-world-war-ii" title="" class="state-published contenttype-site">

World War II
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>

</ul>
 
 
 </li>
 
 <li class="navTreeItem visualNoMarker navTreeFolderish section-warfare-1450-1789">

Warfare (1450&#8211;1789)
 </a>
 
 
 
 </li>

</ul>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </div>
			<div id="content" class="grid_5">
	<h1>Lev&#233;e en Masse</h1>
	<div class="documentByLine" id="document-byline">
 
			von 
			by 
 Ambrogio A. Caiani
		Original aufOriginal in English,
		angezeigt aufdisplayed in <a href="" id="articlelanguage_top">English</a><ul id="avllist"><li><a href="/caiania-2010-de">deDeutschGerman</a></li><li><a href="/caiania-2010-en">enEnglischEnglish</a></li></ul>&#9662;
 		 
 	
			PublishedErschienen: 
			
				2010-12-03
				<ul id="datelist" class="select-popup"></ul>
			
		 
		<a class="printthis" onclick="window.print(); return false;" href="#">
			<img class="en" src="/_theme/img/print_12x12.png" alt="Print" title="Print">
			<img class="de" src="/_theme/img/print_12x12.png" alt="Drucken" title="Drucken">
		</a>
 	<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse/customview/++widget++form.widgets.dnb/@@download/caiania-2010-en.pdf">
			<img alt="PDF" class="pdficon" src="/_theme/img/pdf_12x12.png" title="PDF Version">
		</a>
 	<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/author/caiania"><img class="en" alt="E-mail" src="/_theme/img/mail_12x12.png" title="E-mail the author"><img class="de" alt="E-mail" src="/_theme/img/mail_12x12.png" title="E-Mail an den Autor"></a>
		
 	<a id="dcexport" class="xmlexport link-trailing-slash" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse/dcexport"><img class="en" src="/_theme/img/xml_12x12.png" alt="XML Metadata" title="save metadata as XML"><img class="de" src="/_theme/img/xml_12x12.png" alt="XML Metadaten" title="Metadaten als XML speichern">
		</a>
 &#160;&#160;
		
 	Lev&#233;e en Masse
	</div>
 
 When faced, in 1793, with the prospect of defeat, the National Convention issued an appeal for a lev&#233;e en masse, which, theoretically, placed the entire population at the disposal of France's war machine. Thus was born the modern idea of the nation in arms. This concept has proved to have an enduring legacy, and has been adapted to suit a wide variety of contexts and time periods. This article explores the birth, development and transmission of the lev&#233;e en masse. It seeks to understand why the concept survived beyond the 1790s and how it remained a compelling instrument of mass mobilisation in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
 
 <dl class="portlet toc" id="document-toc">
		<dt class="portletHeader">InhaltsverzeichnisTable of Contents</dt>
 	<dd class="portletItem"></dd>
	</dl>
 <div id="parent-fieldname-text" class="hyphenate"> <div id="articlebody">
 <div class="fieldErrorBox"></div>
 
 <h2>The Creation of the Lev&#233;e en Masse</h2>
The first four years of the French Revolution created turmoil in the nation's armies, and were characterised by revolt, mutiny, counter-revolution, and largescale emigration within the aristocratic officercorps.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_7">1</a> The catastrophic defeat of General <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/69039374" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Charles Fran&#231;ois Du P&#233;rier Dumouriez (1739&#8211;1823)</a> at Neerwinden in March 1793 seemed to nullify the effects of previous army reform and brought back the spectre of foreign invasion.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_20">2</a> The lev&#233;e en masse of 23 August 1793 was the French Convention's direct response to this looming crisis. It ambitiously declared that:
<blockquote>From this moment and until all enemies are driven from the territory of the Republic all French persons are placed in permanent requisition for the service of the armies. The young men will go to battle, married men will forge arms and transport provisions; women will make tents and clothing and serve in the hospitals; children will shred old linen; old men will have themselves carried to public places to arouse the courage of warriors and preach the hatred of kings and the unity of the Republic.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_37">3</a></blockquote>
<a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/the-battle-of-jena-1806" title="The battle of Jena 1806"><img alt="Die Schlacht bey Jena, um 1806, unbekannter K&#252;nstler; Bildquelle: Schulze, Friedrich (Hg.): Die Franzosenzeit in deutschen Landen 1806&#8211;1815: In Wort und Bild der Mitlebenden, Leipzig 1908, vol. 1." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/die-schlacht-bey-jena/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die Schlacht bey Jena_IMG"></a>At its most apparent and superficial level, this compelling and extraordinary legislation sought to assemble recruits for an army of 750,000 men, and to create a logistic framework of sufficient magnitude to support such an unprecedented military establishment.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_39">4</a> Although these tangible goals were of fundamental importance, this mass mobilisation was to be much more than a mere drive to extract manpower and strategic resources from the French population.
Compulsory military service, or at least the sovereign's right to compel his subjects to enlist in the armed forces, was nothing new in either French or European history. Indeed, the ancien r&#233;gime monarchy's imperfect recruitment and militia system had enabled <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4018145-5" rel="noopener" target="_blank">France</a> to field some of the largest armies of the early modern period.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_41_marker42" title=" Paret, Understanding War 1992, pp. 53&#8211;57; Anderson, War and Society 1988, pp. 111&#8211;128; Black, Military Revolution 1991; Wilson, Reich 2004, pp. 225&#8211;234; cf. Howard, War 1976, pp. 20&#8211;74; Lynn, French Army 2006, chapters 10, 11."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_41">5</a> Despite the apparent achievements of <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/268675767/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Louis XIV of France (1638&#8211;1715)">Louis XIV's (1638&#8211;1715)</a> armies during the grand si&#232;cle, by the late eighteenth century it was felt that fundamental reforms were necessary.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_43">6</a> Military analysts like <a class="external-link" data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/56616378" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Servan (1737&#8211;1807)">Joseph Servan (1737&#8211;1807)</a> and the counts of Guibert (Charles Beno&#238;t, 1715&#8211;1786), and <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/13108092" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Claude Louis de Saint Germain (1707&#8211;1778)">Saint Germain (Claude Louis, 1707&#8211;1778)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/claude-louis-comte-de-saint-germain-170720131778" title="Claude Louis de Saint-Germain (1707&#8211;1778)">[<img alt="Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain (1707&#8211;1778), o. J., unbekannter K&#252;nstler; Bildquelle: Reverdil, Elie Salomon Fran&#231;ois: Struensee og det danske hof, Kopenhagen 1916, wikimedia commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Claude_louis_de_saint_germain.jpg." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/claude-louis-comte-de-saint-germain-170720131778/@@images/image/thumb" title="Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain (1707&#8211;1778) IMG">]</a>, affirmed that institutional reorganisation, or the introduction of Prussian-style tactics and discipline, was insufficient to break the stagnation into which venality, poor leadership and ill-trained troops had plunged the royal army-of-the-line.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_45">7</a> A new military 'spirit' had to be instilled into the nation at large.
These writers, inspired by classical antiquity, believed that, through education and training, the subjects of the king could be transformed into citizen soldiers. Universal military service in an enlightened polity placed the entire population of the nation at the disposal of the state, thus providing a potentially inexhaustible source of manpower. It was further hoped that these troops, who were patriotic, intelligent and highly-motivated, would be able to decisively influence the outcome of any battle. This proposal was certainly inspired by the Enlightenment's broader strategy of defining a new civic identity, which would expand participation in public administration and thus create a more benign system of governance.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_47">8</a>
The lev&#233;e en masse was the culmination of this long-standing call for the creation of a new military culture. The Constituent Assembly had already introduced the principle of merit in the promotion system of officers. There had also been experiments in creating volunteer legions and a more humane code of military discipline. Despite the publicity accorded to these innovations, their efficacy on the battlefield failed to materialise.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_49_marker50" title=" Blanning, Revolutionary Wars 1996, p. 101; Lynn, Bayonets 1996, pp. 163&#8211;182; Forrest, French Revolution 1990, pp. 89&#8211;124, 192&#8211;197; Muir, Tactics 1998, pp. 199&#8211;200."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_49">9</a> The fall of the Constitutional Monarchy and the radicalisation of Republican politics gradually allowed the Jacobins to urge more far-reaching reforms.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_51_marker52" title=" Forrest, Lev&#233;e en Masse 2003, pp. 12&#8211;14; Bertaud, Citizen-Soldiers 1985, pp. 97&#8211;132; Brown, Army Administration 1995, pp. 65&#8211;97."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_51">10</a> They felt that previous attempts had not gone far enough in bringing the spirit and energy of the 1789 Revolution to the army. They viewed with suspicion bordering on obsession the remaining noble officers and white-uniformed veterans of the old royal army. They were certain that battlefield failures were due to a refusal, on the part of traditional elements within the military, to push forward reforms. Only by imbuing the army with revolutionary zeal could this situation be reversed.
The Jacobins claimed the lev&#233;e en masse was not an instrument of state coercion, but an extraordinary recruitment measure intended to harness the French people's pre-existing enthusiasm, patriotic fervour and ideological commitment to the Revolution.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_53">11</a> The lev&#233;e was a complex formula in which political ideology was transformed into a secret weapon which would ultimately result in the Revolution's triumph over ancien r&#233;gime despotism.
The dissymmetry between the physical realty and the ideological claims of the lev&#233;e has been the subject of significant debate and controversy. Although many historians dispute the actual numbers of the army created in 1793, few would dispute that this force, of roughly 600,000 men, was the backbone of France's subsequent successes and eventual military breakthrough in 1796.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_55">12</a> It is worth recalling, however, that the lev&#233;e did not make provision for a system of annual conscription. This innovation was introduced by the Jourdan law of 12 January 1798, which replenished, on a yearly basis, the ranks of the French army. The Napoleonic Grande Arm&#233;e was to be a composite force, made-up of veterans of the 1793 lev&#233;e and fresh recruits.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_57">13</a>
Also of interest is the earnest manner in which both supporters and enemies of the Revolution perceived the threat posed by this new ideologico-military apparatus. Theorists of modern warfare of future renown, such as <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/61543895" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Carl von Clausewitz (1780&#8211;1831)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/carl-von-clausewitz-178020131831" title="Carl von Clausewitz (1780&#8211;1831)">[<img alt="Carl von Clausewitz (1780&#8211;1831), schwarz-wei&#223; Reproduktion eines &#214;lgem&#228;ldes, o. J., unbekannter K&#252;nstler; Bildquelle: Clausewitz, Carl von: Geist und Tat: Das Verm&#228;chtnis des Soldaten und Denkers, hg. von Walther Malmsten Schering, Stuttgart 1942." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/carl-von-clausewitz-178020131831-_img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Carl von Clausewitz (1780&#8211;1831)_IMG">]</a> and Baron <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95148526" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Antoine Henri de Jomini (1779&#8211;1869)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/copy_of_antoine-henri-jomini-177920131869" title="Antoine-Henri Jomini (1779&#8211;1869)">[<img alt="Marc Charles Gabriel Gleyre (1806&#8211;1874), Portrait Baron Antoine-Henri Jomini (1779&#8211;1869), &#214;l auf Leinwand, 1859; Bildquelle: Valli&#232;re, Paul de: Treue und Ehre: Geschichte der Schweizer in Fremden Diensten, Lausanne o. J. [1940], wikimedia commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gleyre_Antoine_Henri_Jomini.jpg." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/antoine-henri-jomini-177920131869-_img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Antoine-Henri Jomini (1779&#8211;1869)_IMG">]</a> accepted, without much reservation, the effectiveness of France's innovations.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_59">14</a> They defined these new phenomena as wars of opinion, or national wars, in a quest to create rigid typologies, which would finally uncover the essential nature of 'War' and thus unlock the secrets of ultimate victory. It was the highly persuasive nature of the lev&#233;e which allowed for its slow diffusion and adoption, not only in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4015701-5" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Europe</a>, but in the wider world. What is certainly less clear is whether the actual experience of campaigning, or fighting in battle, was transformed by such claims.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_61">15</a>
Studies on desertion and resistance to conscription show how fragile the credibility of the lev&#233;e could be when confronted with the hostility of peasant archaism and other regional particularisms.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_65">16</a> It is also uncertain whether the citizen soldier represented a qualitative leap in the actual experience of soldiering. Depressingly, the enduring efficacy and professionalism of mercenaries would seem to work against this assumption. Indeed, the troops of ancien r&#233;gime princes resisted the onslaught of France's revolutionary forces for the better part of a decade.
<h2>The Dissemination of the Lev&#233;e en Masse throughout Europe</h2>
The subsequent military reorganisation of the principal ancien r&#233;gime armies by aristocratic officials, like Reichsfreiherr <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/18256525" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein (1757&#8211;1831)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/copy_of_heinrich-friedrich-karl-vom-und-zum-stein-175720131831" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein (1757&#8211;1831)">[<img alt="Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (1794&#8211;1872), Portrait Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein (1757&#8211;1831), Federzeichnung in Sepia &#252;ber Spuren von Bleistift, 26,2 x 20,2 cm, Rom, 1822; Bildquelle: Koch, Georg: Der Freiherr vom Stein: Von Staat, Volk und Bildung, Kassel 1931." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/heinrich-friedrich-karl-vom-und-zum-stein-175720131831-_img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein (1757&#8211;1831)_IMG">]</a>, <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/59077626" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (1755&#8211;1813)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/copy_of_gerhard-johann-david-von-scharnhorst-175520131813" title="Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (1755&#8211;1813)">[<img alt="Friedrich Bury (1763&#8211;1823), Portrait Gerhard David von Scharnhorst (1755&#8211;1813), schwarz-wei&#223; Reproduktion eines &#214;lgem&#228;ldes, um 1810; Bildquelle: Schulze, Friedrich (Hg.): Die Franzosenzeit in deutschen Landen 1806&#8211;1815: In Wort und Bild der Mitlebenden, Leipzig 1908, vol. 1: 1806&#8211;1812." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/gerhard-johann-david-von-scharnhorst-175520131813-_img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (1755&#8211;1813)_IMG">]</a>, Count <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/32788106" rel="noopener" target="_blank">August Wilhelm Anton Neidhardt von Gneisenau (1760&#8211;1831)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/copy_of_graf-august-wilhelm-anton-neidhart-von-gneisenau-176020131831" title="August Wilhelm Anton Neidhart von Gneisenau (1760&#8211;1831)">[<img alt="Graf August Wilhelm Anton Neidhardt von Gneisenau (1760&#8211;1831), schwarz-wei&#223; Reproduktion eines &#214;lgem&#228;ldes, o. J., unbekannter K&#252;nstler; Bildquelle: Cochenhausen, Friedrich von: Gneisenau: Seine Bedeutung in der Geschichte und f&#252;r die Gegenwart, Berlin 1929." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/graf-august-wilhelm-anton-neidhart-von-gneisenau-176020131831-_img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Graf August Wilhelm Anton Neidhart von Gneisenau (1760&#8211;1831)_IMG">]</a>, Archduke <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/69724369" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Charles of Austria (1771&#8211;1847)</a> and Prince <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/20477708" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (1761&#8211;1818)</a>, was a direct response to a perceived French martial superiority.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_63_marker64" title=" Craig, Prussian Army 1955, pp. 37&#8211;67; Rothenberg, Great Adversary 1982, pp. 134&#8211;158; Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon 2009, pp. 102&#8211;137."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_63">17</a> It is equally important to stress that these reforms were not a straightforward adoption of the revolutionary model or ethos, and that each state refashioned the idea of the nation in arms to suit its specific cultural context and political agenda. For example, Peter Paret's important study concerning the role of General Count <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/20508533" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Hans David Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg (1759&#8211;1830)</a> in the resurgence of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4047194-9" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Prussia</a>, a figure previously viewed as an obscurantist reactionary, has shown that his improvements in light infantry tactics made a significant contribution to battlefield performance.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_67">18</a> Similarly, the increased use of irregular troops in the Spanish Guerrillas and the German Erhebung of 1813 represented specific regional variations on the original 1793 concept of the lev&#233;e.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_69">19</a> Their contribution to Napoleon's ultimate defeat, like the lev&#233;e, remains a much debated issue.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_71">20</a>
An equally significant evolution lies in the manner in which autocratic monarchs, like <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/774683/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia (1770&#8211;1840)">Friedrich Wilhelm III (1770&#8211;1840)</a> or <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/4938543" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Alexander I of Russia (1777&#8211;1825)">Alexander I (1777&#8211;1825)</a>, appealed to their subjects directly in order to associate their dynastic interests with the patriotic indignation elicited by French aggression.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_73_marker74" title=' "Great sacrifices will be demanded from every class of the people, for our undertaking is a great one, and the number and resources of our enemies far from insignificant. But would you not rather make these sacrifices for the fatherland and for your own rightful king than for a foreign ruler, who, as he has shown by many examples, will use you and your sons and your uttermost farthing for ends which are nothing to you? Faith in God, perseverance, and the powerful aid of our allies will bring us victory as the reward of our honest efforts". Friedrich Wilhelm III, An Mein Volk, in Robinson, European History 1906, vol. 2, pp. 522&#8211;523.'><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_73">21</a> The manifesto issued by Alexander I in 1812 is a clear instance of this discursive shift:
<blockquote>The enemy has crossed our frontiers and is continuing to carry his arms into Russia, seeking to shake the foundations of this great power by his might and seductions ... We now appeal to all our loyal subjects, to all estates and conditions both spiritual and temporal, to rise up with us in a united and universal stand against the enemy's schemes and endeavours ... Brave descendants of courageous Slavs! You always smashed the teeth of the lions and tigers who sought to attack you. Let everyone unite: with the Cross in your hearts and weapons in your hands no human force will defeat you.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_75">22</a></blockquote>
These words highlight the sheer conceptual malleability of the lev&#233;e. Like the declaration of 1793, this manifesto clearly tries to harness the power of an entire people voluntarily rising up against an invader who threatens to visit upon them not only material destruction, but virtual cultural annihilation. However, unlike its Jacobin and secular counterpart, the defence of the fatherland is inextricably linked to the protection of Orthodox Christianity. The power of the image of the nation in arms lies in its flexibility and adaptability. It is a compelling instrument which can be utilised in extremely different contexts and in the defence of apparently conflicting ideals. Nationalism, ethnicity, religion, dynasty, state and radical ideologies, like socialism, are all elements which have found accommodation under this wide umbrella.
Indeed, the memory of the lev&#233;e en masse of 1793 and the application of nationwide military mobilisation was to survive well beyond the Napoleonic wars. The sovereigns of Restoration Europe maintained semi-conscript standing armies and allowed for the gradual bourgeoisification of their officer corps. In some ways the revolutionary wars achieved what the ancien r&#233;gime dynasties had been unable to accomplish in the eighteenth century,<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_77_marker78" title=" Sauvigny, The Bourbon Restoration 1966, pp. 282&#8211;288; Holroyd, The Bourbon Army 1971, pp. 529&#8211;552; Cannadine, British Aristocracy 1990, pp. 264&#8211;280; Craig, Prussian Army, pp. 65&#8211;92; Sked, Habsburg Empire 1979, Part I."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_77">23</a> that is to say, the creation of a stable recruitment system to feed their standing armies on an annual basis, regardless of the regional particularisms and exemptions which continued to characterize their dominions.
During the nineteenth century the rise of romantic nationalism made the army a prime site where a sense of national/political identity could be inculcated on an apparently receptive citizenry.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_79_marker80" title=' Paret, Nationalism, 1970, pp. 2&#8211;6; Bismarck once stated "that the army was alone the bearer of the national ideal", see Pflanze, Bismarck 1955, pp. 548&#8211;566.'><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_79">24</a> This was especially the case in states which were the product of wars of unification. The <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027833-5" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Italian</a> royal army was perceived by post-unification governments as one of the principal factories where <a class="external-link" data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/43949" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Massimo d'Azeglio (ca. 1798&#8211;1866)">Massimo d'Azeglio's (ca. 1798&#8211;1866)</a> Italians would be manufactured. It was believed that army service, even more than a national education curriculum, was an efficacious means of creating a common cultural identity. In 1888 the newspaper La Riforma proudly proclaimed that "today every Italian is a citizen, every citizen a soldier".<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_81">25</a> For the Savoy dynasty in particular, keeping a large army, well beyond both the resources and needs of their newly unified polity, was a means of reasserting their overall leadership, but also of exerting their cultural patronage over the very concept of Italianit&#224;.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_83">26</a> A very similar case could be made for Wilhelmine <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4011882-4" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Germany</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_85">27</a> Indeed, much of the political tension that existed in the newly unified Second Reich revolved around the issue of the democratic establishment's right to influence the nature and size of the army.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_87_marker88" title=" Clark, Iron Kingdom 2006, pp. 559, 596&#8211;611; Chickering, Imperial Germany 2004, pp. 32&#8211;40; Craig, Prussian Army 1955, pp. 278&#8211;254."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_87">28</a> It was also felt by many elite officers that mass mobilisation remained a useful counter-balance against the growing threat of radical socialism and other extremist revolutionary ideologies. To these officials, military service could re-educate the recruit and discourage him from following such unpatriotic, subversive and dangerously internationalist doctrines.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_89">29</a>
This vision of the army, as the privileged breeding-ground of a sense of national identity, was not the exclusive preserve of the semi-constitutional monarchies of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4039677-0" rel="noopener" target="_blank">central Europe</a>. France was equally interested in inculcating a sense of national republicanism into its citizenry.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_29">30</a> Here the armed forces were a particularly fertile ground for such experiments. This was especially the case after the universal conscription law of 1905 did away with the last remaining exemptions from national service.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_91">31</a> France was the country which had unleashed the legend of the lev&#233;e, and was in a privileged position, as it could use this historical legacy in a more direct manner. <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7392798" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ernest Lavisse (1844&#8211;1922) ">Ernest Lavisse's (1844&#8211;1922) </a>school textbooks, and other pedagogical works, stressed the lev&#233;e as the instrument through which Revolutionary France's glorious martial past had emerged.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_31">32</a> They also hinted, in a far from subtle fashion, that this proud history should provide inspiration for the future. Could it not be the means of erasing the memory of the defeats of 1870 and for the recovery of the lost provinces of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4014502-5" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Alsace-Lorraine</a>?
<h2>The Decline of the Lev&#233;e?</h2>
John Horne's work on the First World War has argued that the memory of 1793 continued to exert a powerful, if ambiguous, influence on the manner in which the Third Republic tried to justify its own attempt to mobilise the entire nation in the defence of the Patrie.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_32">33</a> One of the most difficult issues to resolve in 1916, which had not been featured in the debates of the 1790s, was whether the male non-combatant was a legitimate participant in the nation's armed struggle or merely an embusqu&#233; shirking his duties by avoiding the dangers of the front line.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_33">34</a> The experience of total and industrial warfare during the twentieth century, with its high casualty rates, long duration, and, in some cases, the appeal to a pseudoscientific racial nationalism, led to disillusionment with the image of the nation in arms. Some would argue that the gradual abandonment, on the part of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4467306-1" rel="noopener" target="_blank">continental Europe</a>, of compulsory military service is evidence of the weakening appeal of the lev&#233;e.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_34">35</a> Such an argument, while forceful, is certainly one-sided, as it ignores the continuing appeal to popular consensus and liberal values which Western democratic states use to justify their military interventions outside their borders.
Furthermore, while it may be the case that mass mobilisation is no longer in vogue in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079215-8" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Western Europe</a>, this is certainly not the case in the wider world. Revolutionary movements in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4078014-4" rel="noopener" target="_blank">South America</a> and post-colonial African administrations have employed variations on the original theme of the lev&#233;e of 1793.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_35">36</a> <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/31991306" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Ernesto "Che" Guevara (1928&#8211;1967)</a> gave what was perhaps one of the most cogent redefinitions:
<blockquote>It is important to emphasise that guerrilla warfare is a war of the masses, a war of the people. The Guerrilla band, as an armed nucleus, is the combative vanguard of the people. Its great force is drawn from the mass of the people themselves. The guerrilla band should not be considered inferior to the army against which it fights, simply because it has inferior firepower. ... The Guerrilla fighter counts on the full support of the local people.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_36">37</a></blockquote>
<a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/en/mediainfo/copy_of_conscription-map-of-the-world-2009" title="Conscription map of the world 2009"><img alt="Conscription map of the world 2009, unknown author, last updated: 26 September 2009; source: wikimedia commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conscription_map_of_the_world.svg." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/levee-en-masse-bilderordner/conscription-map-of-the-world-2009_img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Conscription map of the world 2009_IMG"></a>There is much in this language which would have been familiar to the citizen-soldiers of 1793. Still present is the idea of mass popular support, and that the people fight spontaneously rather than through coercion. The Marxist jargon and the modern vision of economic oppression might have puzzled the Jacobins, but at its core remains the message that he who fights for a just cause, with the support of the masses, will be triumphant even against insurmountable odds.
This brief survey of the transcultural impact of the lev&#233;e en masse cannot account for all the variations in content, style, image and perception which have characterised its two centuries of existence. Anyone wishing to be exhaustive and comprehensive faces a dizzying and unnerving task in trying to come to grips with such a vast and complicated subject. It is surely this mercurial and unstable nature which has been at the heart of its adaptability and longevity. Above all else, it is the ability of the lev&#233;e to persuade its public that it provides an effective equation through which popular sentiment is transformed into the decisive factor in the outcome of warfare that remains of fundamental importance.
<a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/250535656/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ambrogio A. Caiani">Ambrogio A. Caiani</a>
</div> <h2>Appendix</h2>
<h3>Sources</h3>
Clausewitz, Carl von: On War, ed. by Anatol Rapoport, London 1968. URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/onwarclau00clau" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/onwarclau00clau</a> [2021-07-26]
Guevara, Ernesto "Che": Guerrilla Warfare, Havana 2006.
Guibert, Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte, Comte de: Essai g&#233;n&#233;ral de tactique: pr&#233;c&#233;d&#233; d'un discours sur l'&#233;tat actuel de la politique et de la science militaire en Europe: avec le plan d'un ouvrage intitul&#233;: La France politique et militaire, Li&#232;ge 1775, vol. 1&#8211;2. URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/essaignraldetac00guibgoog" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/essaignraldetac00guibgoog</a> [2021-07-26]
Jomini, Antoine-Henri, Baron de: The Art of War, ed. by John-Allen Price et al., Radford, VA 2008.
Robinson, James Harvey (ed.): Readings in European History: A collection of extracts from the sources chosen with the purpose of illustrating the progress of culture in Western Europe since the German Invasions, London 1906, vol. 2. URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/readingsineurop03robigoog" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/readingsineurop03robigoog</a> [2021-07-26]
Servan de Gerbey, Joseph Marie: Le soldat citoyen: Ou Vues patriotiques sur la mani&#232;re la plus avantageuse de pourvoir &#224; la d&#233;fense du royaume, Neufch&#226;tel 1780. URL: <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k43897x" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k43897x</a> / <a href="http://data.onb.ac.at/rep/1030F47D" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://data.onb.ac.at/rep/1030F47D</a> [2021-07-26]
<h3>Literature</h3>
Anderson, Matthew S.: War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime 1618&#8211;1789, London 1988. URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/warsocietyineuro0000ande" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/warsocietyineuro0000ande</a> / <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015013326395" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015013326395</a> [2021-07-26]
Bertaud, Jean-Paul: La Vie Quotidienne des Soldats de la R&#233;volution 1789&#8211;1799, Paris 1985.
Bertaud, Jean-Paul: The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument of Power, Princeton, NJ 1979. URL:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691198088" rel="noopener" target="_blank"> https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691198088</a> [2021-07-26]
Bertier de Sauvigny, Guillaume: The Bourbon Restoration, Philadelphia, PA 1966. URL: <a class="linkWithoutStyle subTitleInfoProductPage" href="https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512814378" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.9783/9781512814378</a> [2021-07-26]
Black, Jeremy: A Military Revolution? Military Change and European Society 1550&#8211;1800, London 1991. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-11361-3" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-11361-3</a> / URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/militaryrevoluti0000blac" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/militaryrevoluti0000blac</a> [2021-07-26]
Blanning, Timothy C. W.: The French Revolutionary Wars 1787&#8211;1802, London 1996.
Bodinier, Gilbert: Les Gardes du Corps de Louis XVI, Paris 2005. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015060660654" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015060660654</a> [2021-07-26]
Brown, Howard G.: War, Revolution and the Bureaucratic State: Politics and Army Administration in France 1791&#8211;1799, Oxford 1995. URL: <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205425.001.0001" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205425.001.0001</a> [2021-07-26]
Cannadine, David: The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy, London 1990. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01288" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01288</a> / URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3txs" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ww3txs</a> / URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/declinefallofbri00cann" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/declinefallofbri00cann</a> [2021-07-26]
Chickering, Roger: Imperial Germany and the Great War 1914&#8211;1918, 2nd edition, Cambridge 2004.
Clark, Christopher: Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 1600&#8211;1947, London 2006. URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/ironkingdomrised00chri" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/ironkingdomrised00chri</a> / URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.32106018716586" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.32106018716586</a> [2021-07-26]
Collins, James: The State in Early Modern France, 2nd edition, Cambridge 2009. URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139170147" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139170147</a> [2021-07-26] 
Craig, Gordon A.: The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640&#8211;1945, Oxford 1955. URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/politicsofpruss00gord" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/politicsofpruss00gord</a> / URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.49015000251901" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.49015000251901</a> [2021-07-26]
Duggan, Christopher: Francesco Crispi: from Nation to Nationalism, Oxford 2002. URL: <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206118.001.0001" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198206118.001.0001</a> [2021-07-26]
Esdaile, Charles J.: Fighting Napoleon: Guerrillas, Bandits and Adventurers in Spain 1808&#8211;1814, London 2004.
Forrest, Alan: D&#233;serteurs et Insoumis sous la R&#233;volution et l'Empire, Paris 1988.
Forrest, Alan: The Legacy of the French Revolutionary War: The Nation in Arms in French Republican Memory, Cambridge 2009. URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511730016" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511730016</a> [2021-07-26] 
Forrest, Alan: Napoleon's Men: The Soldiers of the Revolution and Empire, London 2002. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015056436275" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015056436275</a> [2021-07-26]
Forrest, Alan: The Soldiers of the French Revolution, London 1990. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822398103" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822398103</a> [2021-07-26]
Forrest, Alan: La patrie en danger: The French Revolution and the First Lev&#233;e en Masse, in: Daniel Moran et al. (ed.): The People in Arms: Military Myth and National Mobilization since the French Revolution, Cambridge 2003, pp. 8&#8211;32.
Harari, Yuval Noah: Martial Illusions: War and Disillusionment in Twentieth-Century and Renaissance Military Memoirs, in: The Journal of Military History 69, 1 (2005), pp. 43&#8211;72. URL: <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3397042" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/3397042</a> / URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/jmh.2005.0059" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1353/jmh.2005.0059</a> [2021-07-26]
Heuser, Beatrice: The Evolution of Strategy, Thinking War from Antiquity to the Present, Cambridge 2010. URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511762895" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511762895</a> [2021-07-26] 
Hof, Ulrich Im: The Enlightenment, Oxford 1994. URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/enlightenment0000imho" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/enlightenment0000imho</a> [2021-07-26]
Holroyd, Richard: "The Bourbon Army: 1815&#8211;1830", in: The Historical Journal 14, 3 (1971), pp. 529&#8211;552. URL: <a class="app-link app-link__text app-link--accent" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X00007548" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X00007548</a> [2021-07-26]
Horne, John: "L'imp&#244;t du sang": Republican Rhetoric and Industrial Warfare in France: 1914&#8211;1918, in: Social History 14, 2 (1989), pp. 201&#8211;223. URL: <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4285763" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/4285763</a> / URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03071028908567737" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080/03071028908567737</a> [2021-07-26]
Horne, John: Defining the Enemy: War, Law and the Lev&#233;e en masse from 1870 to 1945, in: Daniel Moran et al. (ed.): The People in Arms, Military Myth and National Mobilization since the French Revolution, Cambridge 2003, pp. 100&#8211;123.
Howard, Michael: War in European History, Oxford 1976. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015002281163" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015002281163</a> / URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/warineuropeanhis00howa" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/warineuropeanhis00howa</a> [2021-07-26]
Levi, Margaret: Consent, Dissent and Patriotism, Cambridge 1997. URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511609336" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511609336</a> [2021-07-26] 
Lieven, Dominic: Russia Against Napoleon: The Battle for Europe 1807 to 1814, London 2009.
Lynn, John A.: Giant of the Grand Si&#232;cle: The French Army 1610&#8211;1715, Cambridge 2006. URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511572548" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511572548</a> [2021-07-26] 
Lynn, John A.: Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791&#8211;1794, Oxford 1996. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429309052" id="gtm_doi_link" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429309052&#160;</a>[2021-07-26]
Moran, Daniel et al. (ed.): The People in Arms, Military Myth and National Mobilization since the French Revolution, Cambridge 2003.
Moran, Daniel: Arms and the Concert: The Nation in Arms and the Dilemmas of German Liberalism, in: Daniel Moran et al. (ed.): The People in Arms, Military Myth and National Mobilization since the French Revolution, Cambridge 2003, pp. 49&#8211;74.
Muir, Rory: Tactics and the experience of battle in the age of Napoleon, London 1998. URL:&#160;<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vksz0" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vksz0</a> [2021-07-26]
Nora, Pierre: Lavisse, the Nation's Teacher, in: Pierre Nora (ed.): The Realms of Memory: the Construction of the French Past, New York, NY 1996, vol. 1&#8211;3.
Ozouf, Jacques and Mona: Le Tour de la France par deux enfants, in: Pierre Nora (ed.): The Realms of Memory: the Construction of the French Past, New York, NY 1996, vol. 1&#8211;3.
Paret, Peter: Understanding War: Essays on Clausewitz and the History of Military Power, Princeton, NJ 1992. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691216034" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691216034">https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691216034</a> [2021-07-26]
Paret, Peter: Yorck and the era of the Prussian reform 1807&#8211;1815, Princeton, NJ 1966. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400875986" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400875986</a> [2021-07-26]
Paret, Peter: Nationalism and the Sense of Military Obligation, in: Military Affairs 34,1 (1970), pp. 2-6. URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1984544" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307/1984544 </a>[2021-07-26]
Peruta, Franco della: Esercito e Societ&#224; nell' Italia Napoleonica: Dalla Cisalpina al Regno d'Italia, Milan 1996, vol. 3. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015049186797" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015049186797</a> [2021-07-26]
Pflanze, Otto: Bismarck and German Nationalism, in: The American Historical Review 60,3 (1955), pp. 548-566. URL: <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845577" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/1845577</a> / URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/60.3.548" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/60.3.548</a> [2021-07-26]
Rink, Martin: Vom "Partheyg&#228;nger" zum Partisanen: Die Konzeption des kleinen Krieges in Preussen 1740&#8211;1813, Frankfurt am Main 1999.
R&#246;hl, John C. G.: Wilhelm II: The Kaiser's Personal Monarchy 1888&#8211;1900, Cambridge 2004.
Rothenberg, Gunther E.: Napoleon's Great Adversary: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792&#8211;1814, London 1982.
Scott, Samuel F.: The Response of the Royal Army to the French Revolution: The Role and Development of the Line Army 1787&#8211;1793, Oxford 1978. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b4231802" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b4231802</a> [2021-07-26]
Smith, Denis Mack: Italy and its Monarchy, London 1989. URL: <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vm0dc" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt5vm0dc</a> / URL: <a href="https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/italyitsmonarchy0000mack</a> [2021-07-26]
Smith, Leonard V. / Audoin-Rouzeau, St&#233;phane / Becker, Annette: France and the Great War, Cambridge 2003. URL: <a class="doi" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511806872" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511806872</a> [2021-07-26] 
Sked, Alan: The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War 1848, London 1979. URL:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015008966239" rel="noopener" target="_blank"> https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015008966239</a> [2021-07-26]
Weber, Eugen: Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France 1870&#8211;1914, Stanford, CA 1976. URL: <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01321" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01321</a> [2021-07-26]
Wilson, Peter H.: From Reich to Revolution: German History 1558&#8211;1806, London 2004.
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ol id="InsertNote_NoteList" type="1">
<li id="InsertNoteID_7"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_7_marker9">^</a> Bodinier, Les Gardes 2005, pp. 43&#8211;60; Scott, Line Army 1978, pp. 81&#8211;123.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_20"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_20_marker22">^</a> Blanning, Revolutionary Wars 1996, pp. 98&#8211;99.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_37"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_37_marker38">^</a> Bertaud, Citizen-Soldiers 1979, pp. 104&#8211;105.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_39"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_39_marker40">^</a> Bertaud, Citizen-Soldiers 1979, pp. 113&#8211;143; Forrest, Lev&#233;e en Masse 2003, pp. 8&#8211;32.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_41"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_41_marker42">^</a> Paret, Understanding War 1992, pp. 53&#8211;57; Anderson, War and Society 1988, pp. 111&#8211;128; Black, Military Revolution 1991; Wilson, Reich 2004, pp. 225&#8211;234; cf. Howard, War 1976, pp. 20&#8211;74; Lynn, French Army 2006, chapters 10, 11.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_43"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_43_marker44">^</a> Collins, Early Modern France 2009, pp. 59&#8211;70.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_45"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_45_marker46">^</a> Scott, Line Army, pp. 26&#8211;45; Guibert, Essai g&#233;n&#233;ral de tactique 1780, pp. 37&#8211;97.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_47"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_47_marker48">^</a> Hof, The Enlightenment 1994, pp. 213&#8211;220.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_49"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_49_marker50">^</a> Blanning, Revolutionary Wars 1996, p. 101; Lynn, Bayonets 1996, pp. 163&#8211;182; Forrest, French Revolution 1990, pp. 89&#8211;124, 192&#8211;197; Muir, Tactics 1998, pp. 199&#8211;200.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_51"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_51_marker52">^</a> Forrest, Lev&#233;e en Masse 2003, pp. 12&#8211;14; Bertaud, Citizen-Soldiers 1985, pp. 97&#8211;132; Brown, Army Administration 1995, pp. 65&#8211;97.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_53"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_53_marker54">^</a> Moran, The People in Arms 2003, pp. 1&#8211;7.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_55"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_55_marker56">^</a> Forrest, Napoleon's Men 2002, pp. 8&#8211;9.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_57"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_57_marker58">^</a> Forrest, Napoleon's Men 2002, pp. 6&#8211;11; Bertaud, Soldats de la R&#233;volution 1985, pp. 53&#8211;54.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_59"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_59_marker60">^</a> Clausewitz, On War 1968, pp. 295&#8211;296, 384&#8211;386; Jomini, Art of War 2008, pp. 16&#8211;24.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_61"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_61_marker62">^</a> Blanning, Revolutionary Wars 1996, pp. 86&#8211;88, 166&#8211;128; cf. Lynn, Bayonets 1996, p. 278.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_65"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_65_marker66">^</a> Forrest, D&#233;serteurs 1988; Peruta, Italia Napoleonica 1996, chapters 2, 4.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_63"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_63_marker64">^</a> Craig, Prussian Army 1955, pp. 37&#8211;67; Rothenberg, Great Adversary 1982, pp. 134&#8211;158; Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon 2009, pp. 102&#8211;137.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_67"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_67_marker68">^</a> Paret, Prussian Reform 1966, pp. 140&#8211;153, 217&#8211;245.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_69"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_69_marker70">^</a> Esdaile, Guerrillas 2004, pp. 27&#8211;60; Moran, The People in Arms 2003, pp. 53&#8211;67; Rink, "Partheyg&#228;nger" 1999.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_71"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_71_marker72">^</a> Heuser, Evolution of Strategy, Part III.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_73"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_73_marker74">^</a> "Great sacrifices will be demanded from every class of the people, for our undertaking is a great one, and the number and resources of our enemies far from insignificant. But would you not rather make these sacrifices for the fatherland and for your own rightful king than for a foreign ruler, who, as he has shown by many examples, will use you and your sons and your uttermost farthing for ends which are nothing to you? Faith in God, perseverance, and the powerful aid of our allies will bring us victory as the reward of our honest efforts". Friedrich Wilhelm III, An Mein Volk, in Robinson, European History 1906, vol. 2, pp. 522&#8211;523.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_75"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_75_marker76">^</a> Lieven, Russia against Napoleon 2009, p. 217.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_77"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_77_marker78">^</a> Sauvigny, The Bourbon Restoration 1966, pp. 282&#8211;288; Holroyd, The Bourbon Army 1971, pp. 529&#8211;552; Cannadine, British Aristocracy 1990, pp. 264&#8211;280; Craig, Prussian Army, pp. 65&#8211;92; Sked, Habsburg Empire 1979, Part I.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_79"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_79_marker80">^</a> Paret, Nationalism, 1970, pp. 2&#8211;6; Bismarck once stated "that the army was alone the bearer of the national ideal", see Pflanze, Bismarck 1955, pp. 548&#8211;566.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_81"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_81_marker82">^</a> Duggan, Francesco Crispi 2002, p. 540.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_83"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_83_marker84">^</a> Smith, Italy and its Monarchy 1989, pp. 75&#8211;80.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_85"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_85_marker86">^</a> R&#246;hl, Wilhelm II 2004, pp. 291&#8211;294.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_87"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_87_marker88">^</a> Clark, Iron Kingdom 2006, pp. 559, 596&#8211;611; Chickering, Imperial Germany 2004, pp. 32&#8211;40; Craig, Prussian Army 1955, pp. 278&#8211;254.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_89"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_89_marker90">^</a> Paret, Nationalism 1970, pp. 2&#8211;6.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_29"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_29_marker30">^</a> Weber, Modernization of Rural France 1976, pp. 292&#8211;302.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_91"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_91_marker92">^</a> Forrest, Revolutionary War 2009, p. 153.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_31"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_31_marker32">^</a> Ozouf, Le Tour de la France 1996; Nora, Lavisse 1996, vol. 3, pp. 128&#8211;148, 151&#8211;184.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_32"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_32_marker33">^</a> Horne, Defining the Enemy 2003, pp. 112-116.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_33"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_33_marker34">^</a> Horne, L'imp&#244;t du sang, pp. 201&#8211;223; Smith, France and the Great War 2003, pp. 42&#8211;75.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_34"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_34_marker35">^</a> Levi, Patriotism 1997, pp. 185&#8211;190, 208&#8211;219; Harari, Martial Illusions 2005, pp. 43&#8211;72.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_35"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_35_marker36">^</a> For a non-European perspective see chapters by Waldron, Lockhart and Proch in Moran, The People in Arms 2003.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_36"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse#InsertNoteID_36_marker37">^</a> Guevara, Guerrilla 2006, p. 16.</li>
</ol>
 </div>
	<div id="article_metadata"> 
		<div id="license" class="smalltype">
				
					<a class="de" rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.de"><img alt="Creative Commons Lizenzvertrag" style="border-width:0" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-nd/3.0/80x15.png"></a>
					<a class="en" rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.en"><img alt="Creative Commons Lizenzvertrag" style="border-width:0" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc-nd/3.0/80x15.png"></a>
				
			 
			Dieser Text ist lizensiert unter
			This text is licensed under: CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works
		</div>
		<hr>
		
			&#220;bersetzt von:Translated by: 
			Fachherausgeber:Editor: Peter H. Wilson

Redaktion:Copy Editor: Jennifer Willenberg

<div class="document-paths-container">
				Eingeordnet unter:Filed under:
					<div class="document-paths">
					
 <div>
 <ul class="path breadcrumbs">
 <li>
 <a href="https://ego-ploneui.uni-trier.de">Home</a>
 </li> 
 <li>
 &#8594;
 en 
 </li>
 <li>
 &#8594;
 Threads 
 </li>
 <li>
 &#8594;
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars">Alliances and Wars</a> 
 </li>
 <li>
 &#8594;
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer">War as an Agent of Transfer</a> 
 </li>
 <li>
 &#8594;
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription">Conscription</a> 
 </li>
 <li>
 &#8594;
 <a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/alliances-and-wars/war-as-an-agent-of-transfer/conscription/ambrogio-a-caiani-levee-en-masse">Lev&#233;e en Masse</a> 
 </li>
 </ul>
 </div> 
 
 </div>
		</div> 
		<hr>
		<div class="relatedItems">
		</div>
			<h3 id="indices">Indices</h3>
		<div id="ddcarea">
			DDC: <a href="/search?DDC=343&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 343</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=343">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=343">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a><a href="/search?DDC=355&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 355</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=355">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=355">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a>
		</div>
		 
		<div class="geo-links-container"></div>
		<div id="map" style="height:450px;"></div>
		<script src="https://openlayers.org/api/2.13.1/OpenLayers.js"></script>
		<script>
			map = new OpenLayers.Map("map");
			var markers = new OpenLayers.Layer.Markers( "Markers" );
			map.addLayer(markers);
			map.addLayer(new OpenLayers.Layer.OSM()); 
			var fromProjection = new OpenLayers.Projection("EPSG:4326"); // Transform from WGS 1984
			var toProjection = new OpenLayers.Projection("EPSG:900913"); // to Spherical Mercator Projection
			var position = new OpenLayers.LonLat(8.247253,49.992863).transform( fromProjection, toProjection);
			map.setCenter(position, 4 );
		</script>
		<hr>
		<h3>ZitierempfehlungCitation</h3>
		
			Caiani, Ambrogio A.: Lev&#233;e en Masse, in:
			Europ&#228;ische Geschichte Online (EGO),
			hg. vom Leibniz-Institut f&#252;r Europ&#228;ische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz 
			European History Online (EGO),
			published by the Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG), Mainz 
			2010-12-03.
			URL: <a id="primaryurl" href="">https://www.ieg-ego.eu/caiania-2010-en</a>
			URN: <a id="primaryurn" href="">urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921155</a> [JJJJ-MM-TT][YYYY-MM-DD].
		
		Bitte setzen Sie beim Zitieren dieses Beitrages hinter der URL-Angabe in Klammern das Datum Ihres letzten Besuchs dieser Online-Adresse ein. Beim Zitieren einer bestimmten Passage aus dem Beitrag bitte zus&#228;tzlich die Nummer des Textabschnitts angeben, z.B. 2 oder 1-4.
		When quoting this article please add the date of your last retrieval in brackets after the url. When quoting a certain passage from the article please also insert the corresponding number(s), for example 2 or 1-4.
		<div id="ppnarea">
			 
			Titelexport ausExport citation from:
			<a title="incl. export options into standard citation formats" href="http://cbsopac.rz.uni-frankfurt.de/DB=2.1/PPNSET?PPN=229109756">HeBIS-Online-KatalogHeBIS Online Catalogue <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"></a> 
			<a title="incl. export options into standard citation formats" href="http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/692301387">WorldCathttp://www.worldcat.org/oclc/692301387 <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"></a> 
		</div>
		<hr class="double">
		<div class="social-buttons">
			<div class="email-button-container">
				<a href="#" class="email-button social-button">E-MailE-Mail</a>
			</div>
			<div class="recensio-button-container">
				Comment on this entry at recensio.netDiesen Beitrag bei recensio.net kommentieren: 
				<a href="http://www.recensio.net/Members/a.a.caiani/levee-en-masse">CommentKommentieren</a>
			</div>
			<div class="tweet-button-container">
			<div class="tweet-2click-dummy"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_twitter.png" title="Click here to activate Twitter button" alt="Twitter" class="en"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_twitter.png" title="Hier klicken um den Twitter Button zu aktivieren" alt="Twitter" class="de"></div></div>
			<div class="gplus-button-container">
			<div class="gplus-2click-dummy"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_gplus.png" title="Click here to activate +1 button" alt="+1" class="en"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_gplus.png" title="Hier klicken um den +1 Button zu aktivieren" alt="+1" class="de"></div></div>
			<div class="fb-button-container">
			<div class="fb-2click-dummy"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_facebook_en.png" title="Click here to activate Facebook button" alt="Facebook" class="en"><img src="/_theme/img/dummy_facebook.png" title="Hier klicken um den Facebook Button zu aktivieren" alt="Facebook" class="de"></div></div>
		</div> 
		<div class="clear">&#160;</div> 
	</div>
</div> 
			<div class="grid_2 hyphenate" id="rightsidebar">
				<div id="mediabar">
					<ul>
					</ul>
				</div>
			</div>
			<div class="clear">&#160;</div>
			<div class="grid_9">
				<div id="breadcrumb0" class="breadCrumb module">
				<div id="breadcrumbs-1">
				</div>
				</div>
			</div>	
		</div> 
		<div class="clear">&#160;</div>
		<div id="footer" class="grid_9">
 <ul id="bottommenu" class="smalltype">
				<li class="first">
					<a href="/en/ego">About EGO</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/contact">Contact</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/impressum">Legal Details</a>
				</li>
				<li>
					<a href="/en/ego/privacy">Privacy</a>
				</li>
				<li class="last">ISSN 2192-7405</li>
 <li>
 <a id="twitterlogo" href="http://www.twitter.com/ieg_ego"><img width="58" height="20" src="/_theme/img/twitter_button.png" alt="Follow ieg_ego on Twitter" title="Follow ieg_ego on Twitter"></a>
 </li>
 <li class="gplus-2click-dummy" data-url="http://www.ieg-ego.eu">
 <img alt="+1" title="Click here to activate +1 button" src="/_theme/img/dummy_gplus.png">
 </li>
 <li class="fb-2click-dummy" data-url="http://www.ieg-ego.eu">
 <img alt="Facebook" title="Click here to activate Facebook button" src="/_theme/img/dummy_facebook_en.png">
 </li>
 </ul>
 http://www.ieg-ego.eu ISSN 2192-7405
 </div> 
		</div>  
		
			<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/plugins.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
			
			
			<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/jquery.scrollUp.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		<script type="text/javascript" src="https://apis.google.com/js/plusone.js">
		{ parsetags: 'explicit' }
		</script>
		<script src="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/_theme/js/ego_global.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
		
		<script type="text/javascript">
			var _paq = window._paq = window._paq || [];
			/* tracker methods like "setCustomDimension" should be called before "trackPageView" */
			_paq.push(['trackPageView']);
			_paq.push(['enableLinkTracking']);
			(function() {
			var u="https://tcdhpiwik.uni-trier.de/";
			_paq.push(['setTrackerUrl', u+'matomo.php']);
			_paq.push(['setSiteId', '11']);
			var d=document, g=d.createElement('script'), s=d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];
			g.type='text/javascript'; g.async=true; g.src=u+'matomo.js'; s.parentNode.insertBefore(g,s);
			})();
		</script>
	 
	</body>
</html>

EGO | People , Places , Pages

Actions