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 <meta name="description" content='Hasidism is a mystical religious revival movement within Judaism, which draws from the Kabbalist tradition. It was called into existence by the charismatic figure Israel ben Eliezer (ca. 1700&#8211;1760), who was active in Poland. With Tzadikism, it developed specific forms of cultivating a religious elite, apocalyptic expectations, and communal life. This modern Hasidism, which is to be differentiated from the similarly named medieval "Chassidei Ashkenaz" ("German Hasidism", "German Pietists"), spread into the Slavic lands of eastern Europe and Romania after the second half of the eighteenth century, and, following the persecution of the Jews and the Holocaust in the twentieth century, throughout the world, especially into North America and Palestine/Israel.'><meta name="copyright" content="IEG Mainz">
 
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		<title>Hasidism: A Mystical Movement Within Eastern European Judaism &#8212; EGO </title>
	<meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="DC.Title" content="Hasidism: A Mystical Movement Within Eastern European Judaism"><meta name="DC.Source" content="EGO(http://www.ieg-ego.eu)"><meta name="DC.Date.Issued" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CTDF" content="2010-12-03"><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="WorldCathttp://www.worldcat.org/oclc/692301417"><meta name="DC.Rights" content="CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works"><meta name="DC.Description" content="Hasidism is a mystical religious revival movement within Judaism, which draws from the Kabbalist tradition. It was called into existence by the charismatic figure Israel ben Eliezer (ca. 1700&#8211;1760), who was active in Poland. With Tzadikism, it developed specific forms of cultivating a religious elite, apocalyptic expectations, and communal life. This modern Hasidism, which is to be differentiated from the similarly named medieval 'Chassidei Ashkenaz' ('German Hasidism', 'German Pietists'), spread into the Slavic lands of eastern Europe and Romania after the second half of the eighteenth century, and, following the persecution of the Jews and the Holocaust in the twentieth century, throughout the world, especially into North America and Palestine/Israel."><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="urn:nbn:de:0159-2010102535"><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" scheme="DCMIType"><meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" scheme="IMT"><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="generator" content="Plone - http://plone.com"></head>
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			<div id="content" class="grid_5">
	<h1>Hasidism: A Mystical Movement Within Eastern European Judaism</h1>
	<div class="documentByLine" id="document-byline">
 
			von 
			by 
 Yeshayahu Balog, Matthias Morgenstern
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 	Hasidism
	</div>
 
 Hasidism is a mystical religious revival movement within Judaism, which draws from the Kabbalist tradition. It was called into existence by the charismatic figure Israel ben Eliezer (ca. 1700&#8211;1760), who was active in Poland. With Tzadikism, it developed specific forms of cultivating a religious elite, apocalyptic expectations, and communal life. This modern Hasidism, which is to be differentiated from the similarly named medieval "Chassidei Ashkenaz" ("German Hasidism", "German Pietists"), spread into the Slavic lands of eastern Europe and Romania after the second half of the eighteenth century, and, following the persecution of the Jews and the Holocaust in the twentieth century, throughout the world, especially into North America and Palestine/Israel.
 
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 <h2>Beginnings</h2>
<img height="1" src="http://vg05.met.vgwort.de/na/e8889190043d495f988faffd51ddd700" width="1">In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the movements that sprang up around the "Pseudomessiah" <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/3267035" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Shabtai Zvi (1626&#8211;1676)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/shabtai-zvi" title="Shabtai Zvi (1626&#8211;1676)">[<img alt="Shabtai Zvi (1626-1676), Kupferstich, vor 1669, unbekannter K&#252;nstler; Bildquelle: Coenen, Thomas: Ydele Verwachtinge der Joden, getoont in den Persoon van Sabethai Zevi, haeren laetsten vermeynden Messias: ofte Historisch Verhael van't gene ten tyde syner opwerpinge in 't Ottomanisch Rick onder de Joden aldaer voorgevallen is, en syn Val, Amsterdam 1669. Exemplar der Nieders&#228;chsischen Staats- und Universit&#228;tsbibliothek G&#246;ttingen, Signatur 8 H E ECCL 932/1." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/juedische-netzwerke-bilderordner/shabtai-zvi-repro.tif/@@images/image/thumb" title="Shabtai Zvi (1626&#8211;1676) IMG">]</a> (Jewish Sabbatean Movement), who in the end converted to Islam, and his <a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/de/threads/europa-unterwegs/juedische-migration/aschkenasische-juden-im-europa-der-fruehen-neuzeit/predrag-bukovec-jakob-frank-und-der-frankismus">successor</a> <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/40172889" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Jacob Frank (1726&#8211;1791)</a>, who became a Roman Catholic, disappointed many Jews. According to <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/66473364" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Gershom Scholem (1897&#8211;1982)</a> after these disappointing developments the mystical ideas of Kabbalah were passed down among Jews in three ways. One could, like some Orthodox kabbalists "pretend that nothing in particular had happened", one could try "to lead the Kabbalah back from the market place to the solitude of the mystic's semi-monstic cell"<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_0">1</a> or &#8211; and this was the Hasidic path &#8211; one could transform the kabbalist doctrine and use it to inspire a revival movement intended for the entire Jewish people.
Hasidism began with the Polish amulet writer (Hebrew, "Ba'al Schem", a term referring to a miracle healer who uses the magical power of the name of God) and visionary preacher <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/64812822" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Israel ben Eliezer (ca. 1700&#8211;1760)</a>, who quickly became the subject of legends. He was also called the "Ba'al Schem Tov" (literally, "master of the good name") and was known in the Jewish world under the acronym "Besht".<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_2_marker3" title=" For a biography of the Besht from a historical perspective see Rosman, Founder of Hasidism 1996; on the Besht and his role, cf. also Etkes, The Besht 2005."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_2">2</a> Since the most important biographical source, the so-called "In Praise of the Besht" ("Schivche ha-Bescht"), did not appear in print until 1815, little about his life and the beginning of the movement is known with certainty. It is reported that Israel ben Eliezer lost his parents as a child and was taken into custody by the head of the community; he became first an assistant to the teacher and then warden of the synagogue and studied Kabbalist texts at night. Apparently Israel ben Eliezer possessed a charismatic personality already as a youth, but he performed magic and miraculous deeds in public only after he had reached middle age.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_4">3</a> After an itinerant period in which he worked in a stone quarry in the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4029760-3" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Carpathians</a>, ran a pub, and travelled through <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4019124-2" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Galacia</a>, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4386758-3" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Podolia</a>, and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079380-1" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Volhynia</a>, the Besht settled in Medzhybizh<a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/the-house-of-study-in-medzhybizh" title="The House of Study in Medzhybizh"><img alt="Unbekannter Photograph, Bet hamidrasch in Ba alschem in Mied&#382;ybo&#382;, 1927; Bildquelle: J&#252;disches Lexikon, Berlin 1927, vol. III, Sp. 69." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/lehrhaus-in-miedzyboz-aussen-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Lehrhaus in Mied&#382;ybo&#382; (au&#223;en) IMG"></a> in Podolia (Southwest <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4061496-7" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Ukraine</a>), which became one of his most important areas of influence and the first centre of Hasidism.
Israel ben Eliezer now began to assemble a circle of disciples, although, admittedly, not all of them would share his beliefs in every aspect. His following consisted of those who were unhappy with the prevailing rabbinical conception and practice of religion, because, from the perspective of Sabbatean piety, they considered the contemporary, unattractive Rabbinism, which was often overly formal and pilpulistic,<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_6_marker7" title=' Pilpulistic (Hebrew, "pilpul" from "pilel", i.e. "pepper") refers to the method of teaching and discussing practiced at eastern European orthodox Talmud academies; the astute listing of all arguments and counterarguments was intended to clarify texts. Among the Hasidic opponents (and among those influenced by the Jewish Enlightenment) of this classical Jewish technique, the term acquired a negative connotation in the sense of "splitting hairs", "nit-picking" and intellectual aloofness.'><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_6">4</a> to be sterile, or because individuals often felt lost and unprotected in the large and thus anonymous congregations.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_8">5</a>
After the Besht's death, two of his followers shaped the continued path of the Hasidic movement: <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/103790444" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Jacob Joseph Kohen of Polnoy/Polonoye (Ukraine, died 1782)</a> published the first theoretical text of Hasidism, "Sefer Toledot Yaakov Yosef", about twenty years after the Besht's death. His text summarised the oral teachings of the late master. Notably, the first edition of this book had to be printed without the normal haskama, the rabbinical nihil obstat. The other influential follower of the Besht was <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/58054272" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Dov Ber of Mezritsh (1710&#8211;1773)</a>, who became known as "the Great Maggid".<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_10">6</a> While Jacob Joseph of Polnoy lived rather reclusively, the Great Maggid assumed leadership of the movement by gathering a circle of disciples whom he sent out to minister to its scattered followers. The third generation of Hasidic teachers emerged from among Dov Ber's disciples, and they in turn founded dynasties of their own, which shaped Hasidism throughout the entire nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The disciples of the Great Maggid turned to the north towards <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079143-9" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Belarus</a> and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4074266-0" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Lithuania</a> (<a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/52742054" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Aaron the Great of Karlin (1736&#8211;1772)</a> and his successor <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/6470886" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Shlomo of Karlin (1738&#8211;1792)</a>), to the west towards Galacia (<a class="external-link" data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/33416737" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Elimelech of Lizhensk (1717&#8211;1787)">Elimelech of Lizhensk, 1717&#8211;1787</a>), towards central Poland, and later towards Moravian Nikolsburg/ <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4075404-2" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Mikulov</a> (<a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/9696322" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Shmuel Horowitz, (1726&#8211;1778)</a>). A Hasidic group led by <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7245003" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk (1730&#8211;1788)</a> arrived in the 1770s in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4044381-4" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Palestine</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_12">7</a> This phase of Hasidic development is characterised by rapid geographical and numerical expansion, which continued into the nineteenth century: frequently entire congregations were persuaded by emissaries of the Great Maggid to become part of the Hasidic movement. Shmuel Ettinger pointed out the paradoxical elements in this development: on the one hand, Dov Ber of Mezritsh represented a rather authoritarian style of leadership, but, on the other hand, the dynamic which he inspired led to a decentralisation of the movement and finally to the splintering of Hasidism into various competing groups.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_14_marker15" title=" Cf. Ettinger, The Hasidic Movement 1991. Ada Rapoport-Albert has demonstrated the fallacy of the common portrayal of Hasidism as a centralised movement in the first two generations before the death of the Great Maggid in 1772. There were already various Hasidic centres during the life of the Besht, and during the lifespan of the Great Maggid the movement remained decentralised. It seems that the death of Dov Ber of Mezritsh, the Polish divisions, and the polemic of the Mitnagdim caused little change in this regard. The development of different Hasidic centres with the corresponding Rebbes was a result then of this pre-existing decentralised structure. This view is also compatible with the social structure of the Jewish communities in Eastern Europe before the establishment of Hasidism. See Rapoport-Albert, The Hasidic Movement 1990."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_14">8</a>
The Hasidic groups all shared a lifestyle and piety, which was characterised by exuberance, ecstatic prayer and other practices. While earlier research focused on the reasons for the founding of Hasidism, following the work of Gershom Scholem interest has shifted to the characteristics of Hasidism which link the revival movement to early manifestations of Jewish mysticism. Along these lines, Moshe Idel called for the replacement of the historical and socioeconomic analysis of the Hasidic movement with a "panoramic approach", which should attempt to understand the various manifestations of Hasidism (and the other mystical tendencies within Judaism) in relation to a common spectrum of sources. According to Idel, the Hasidic teachings can be interpreted as a new configuration of older texts which include the medieval philosophy and thirteenth-century kabbalist literature of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4073292-7" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Castile</a>, the mystical writings of Rabbi <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/79038296" rel="noopener" target="_blank">L&#246;w of Prague (1525&#8211;1609)</a> (Maharal), and the Kabbalah of the Renaissance.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_16">9</a> "Hasidism can be understood not so much as a reaction or solution to, but rather as a synthesis of diverse mystical elements and paradigms present in earlier types of Jewish mysticism."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_18">10</a> This "holistic" approach is countered by studies, which examine the differing forms of Hasidism within their individual local contexts in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4075739-0" rel="noopener" target="_blank">eastern</a> and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4058449-5" rel="noopener" target="_blank">southeast Europe</a>.
<h2>The Spread of the Hasidic Movement</h2>
Hasidism had already grown from a small sect to a mainstream division of Judaism by the first third of the nineteenth century, and it included the majority of Jews in the Ukraine, Galacia, and central Poland, as well as large Jewish congregations in Belarus, Lithuania and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4078541-5" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Hungary</a>. The spread and fragmentation of the Hasidic movement can be understood in the context of the economic and socio-political crisis of the Polish Jewry in the first half of the eighteenth century, which was divided &#8211; following the partitions of Poland <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/karten-der-teilungen-polens" title="Maps of the three partitions of Poland in the 18th century"><img alt="1. Teilung Polens 1772 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/teilung-1772-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="1. Teilung Polens 1772 IMG"></a> &#8211; into various political territories and thus exposed to different (Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Prussian) influences.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_20">11</a>
The Russian campaign led by <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/106964661" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Napoleon (1769&#8211;1821)</a> played an important role in this development, because it was seen by some Hasidic Jews as the apocalyptic war of "Gog and Magog", with which they associated messianic hopes.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_22">12</a> As a result of the complex political relationships within Eastern Europe, Hasidim in some areas supported Napoleon and in other areas opposed him. The resulting uncertainty is connected to the decline of traditional rabbinical authority, which Jacob Katz has established for the preceding decades. The resulting demise of the traditional institution of the Jewish congregation (Kehilla) led to a weakening of the cohesive powers of the old hierarchical social orders and created a vacuum &#8211; felt by both individuals and congregations as a whole &#8211; which Hasidic groups and their prayer communities (minjanim) and study groups could then fill.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_24">13</a>
Before the Great Maggid died in 1773, a new social structure had already been developed among the Hasidic leaders of the third generation. It focused on the relationship between the "Rebbe", the "Tzadik", and his successors.<a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/centres-of-hasidism" title="Centres of Hasidism "><img alt='Karte: "The Rise of Hasidism"; Bildquelle: Dan Cohn-Sherbok: "Judaism: History, Belief &amp; Practice", London u.a. 2003. (Verlag: Routledge). http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/maps/map50.jpg (Markierungen von EGO-Redaktion).' class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/karte-die-zentren-des-chassidismus-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Zentren des Chassidismus IMG"></a> Because of their personal charisma, which they attributed to the Besht, the leading Hasidic figures demanded allegiance and loyalty. Jacob Joseph of Polnoy<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_26">14</a> and then Elimelech of Lizhensk were the first to formulate the doctrine of the "Tzadik", giving Tzadikism a social and theological basis.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_28">15</a> According to the teachings of the Besht, every Jew was expected to make the effort of reaching the highest level of spiritual life. These efforts were now transferred to the relationship between the Rebbe (i.e., the teacher) and his followers. This can be viewed as a terminological paradox: although Hebrew had traditionally referred to those who were exceptionally pious as "hasid" and to those who followed the universal religious law as "tzadik" (i.e., "righteous")&#160; these terms were now reversed: the Tzadik became the extraordinary homo religiosus who had access to divine grace which he could transfer to his followers.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_30">16</a> The mass of simple "believers" were now characterised as "Hasidim", and their conception of themselves and legitimation both as individuals and as groups resulted from their association with "their" Rebbes.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_32_marker33" title=' This can be explained linguistically as follows: the Hebrew substantive "Hasid" (as used in reference to modern Hasidism and as opposed to the medieval "Chassidei Ashkenaz") never stands alone without an accompanying genitive. A Hasid can thus only be referred to as the follower of a particular Rebbe. For example, in Hebrew, one must be a "Hasid Gur" (i.e., a follower of the Gerer Rebbe), a "Hassid Braslav" (i.e., a follower of the Rabbi Nachman of Braslav), or a "Hasid Lubavitch" (a follower of the Rebbe in Lyubavichi), etc.'><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_32">17</a> "The Hasidic sect served as a framework for direct contact between the leader and his followers, and the communion with God inherent in the Zaddik's enthusiasm was transmitted to his followers and, in any case, was nourished by the group's being together."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_34">18</a> The Tzadik became a channel of divine blessings, and the Hasidim could participate in the divine gift to the extent that he affiliated himself both internally and externally with his teacher.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_36">19</a> The relationship between the Rebbe and his followers was mutually beneficial in that the master lived from the contributions of his Hasidim, but also gave part of his income to the needy. In this system, the contact between the Rebbe and his Hasidim acquired special importance &#8211; for example, during visits at his "court" on Jewish holidays or during travels of the Tzadik. The religious mediation was also maintained, as the office of the Rebbes became hereditary and some of the dynastic courts acquired magnificent furnishings and developed a ceremonial character based on the example of the Polish nobility, which had disappeared as a result of the divisions of Poland. Most of the Hasidic dynasties gradually took on the names of the native places of their founders: "Gerer Hasidism" was named for the small town of G&#243;ra Kalwari (Hebrew Gur, Yiddish Ger) near <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079048-4" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Warsaw</a>, the hometown of Rabbi <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/35834591" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Yitzchak Meir Rothenburg Alter (ca. 1798&#8211;1866)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/tomb-of-the-gerer-rebbe-avraham-mordechai-alter" title="Tomb of the Gerer Rebbe Avraham Mordechai Alter">[<img alt=' Grab des Gerer "Rebben" Avraham Mordechai Alter (1866&#8211;1948) in Jerusalem, Farbphotographie, 2010, Matthias Morgenstern.' class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/grab-des-gerer-rebben-avraham-mordechai-alter-img/@@images/image/thumb" title='Grab des Gerer "Rebben" Avraham Mordechai Alter IMG'>]</a>; "Belzer Hasidism"<a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/synagogue-of-the-belzer-hasidim-in-jerusalem" title="Synagogue of the Belzer Hasidim in Jerusalem"><img alt="Synagoge der Belzer Chassidism in Jerusalem, Farbphotographie, 2010, Photograph: Matthias Morgenstern." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/synagoge-der-belzer-chassidism/@@images/image/thumb" title="Synagoge der Belzer Chassidism (IMG)"></a> took its name from the small Galician town of Belz, the native place of Rabbi <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/58094033" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Sholom Rokeach (1779&#8211;1855)</a>; "Vizhnitzer Hasidism" was named for the town of Vyzhnytsia in western Ukraine; etc.
The Hasidism promulgated by the Rabbi <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/82228511" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Nachman of Bratslav (1771&#8211;1810)</a>, a great-grandson of the Besht, is especially important. He emphasised the ascetic tendencies within Hasidism and, faced with the growing strength of Tzadikism, asserted that he wanted to return to the original Hasidism. Rabbi Nachman became best known for his stories and allegorical fairy tales, of which <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/68926330" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Martin Buber (1878&#8211;1965)</a> published a free adaptation in 1906, which was sharply criticised by later scientists.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_38">20</a> Nachman's mysterious trip to Palestine is supposed to have become quite adventurous when it was caught up in Napoleon's military campaign in the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4075699-3" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Orient</a>. Martin Cunz's analysis of the travelogues calls the trip a "hermeneutische Pantomime" (hermeneutic pantomime), in which the individual facts (or perhaps even the facticity of the trip itself?) have less meaning than the transformation of doctrine.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_40">21</a> In 1802 Rabbi Nachman settled in the Ukrainian town of Bratslav. Eight years later he died in Uman (Ukraine)<a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/hasidim-residence-in-uman-ukraine" title="Hasidim Residence in Uman (Ukraine)"><img alt="unbekannter Photograph, Hasidim residence/hotel in Uman Ukraine, 2007. Bildquelle Wikimedia: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hasidi_Uman_4.JPG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/hasidim-residenz-uman-ukraine-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Hasidim Residenz Uman, Ukraine IMG"></a> without any heirs. Since then he has been worshipped as the sole Tzadik by his followers, who hope that he will return to them one day soon.
The Lubavitcher Hasidism can be viewed as similarly significant. This dynasty is named for the home place of its second Rebbe, who settled in 1813 in the west Russian city of Lyubavichi. The movement was founded by Rabbi <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/71634419" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1745&#8211;1813)</a>, a follower of the Great Maggid who was sent to spread the faith in the north. In 1797, in the course of the clash with his neighbouring Lithuanian opponents, Rabbi Schneur Zalman published "Tanya" (Aramaic, "we have learned") in which he developed a philosophical-esoteric system that combined the rational elements of traditional rabbinical Judaism rooted in the Kabbalah with the mysticism of Hasidism.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_42">22</a> In regard to this background and the movement's emphasis on Torah scholarship, this branch of Hasidism is called "Chabad" Hasidism after the acronym of the Hebrew terms "Chochmah" (wisdom), "Binah" (understanding), and "Da'at" (knowledge). In classical Chabad piety, which underwent a renaissance at the end of the nineteenth century, the Tzadik was recognized as an authority, although without the messianic aspect of mediation and without the resulting personality cult.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_44">23</a> It was this "rational Hasidism", which in the beginning made it possible for the Lubavitcher Hasidim to counter the accusations and allegations of their Lithuanian opponents.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_46_marker47" title=" Cf. Ehrlich, Leadership 2000, p. 48. This sober underlying character of classical Lubavitcher Hasidism deserves special emphasis in light of the messianic exuberance which swept through this group at the end of the twentieth century."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_46">24</a>
<h2>The Opponents of Hasidism (Mitnagdim and Maskilim)</h2>
The representatives of traditional rabbinism opposed the Hasidic movement from the start &#8211; especially because they feared a continuation of Sabbatean theology and perceived Hasidism to have antinomian tendencies. On the one hand, Hasidism did nothing to undermine the basic inherited norms of religious law and rituals, but on the other hand, it did result in changes to religious practice, primarily regarding prayer times and the wording of certain prayers. The most significant modification of the Halacha (the moral and religious commandments of the Jewish tradition) was the requirement to use a specially sharpened knife for kosher butchering.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_48">25</a> These changes, which can probably be explained from a sociological standpoint as necessary for defining Hasidism as a distinct social group, were neither revolutionary innovations nor violations of religious law per se. Nevertheless, they were perceived by non-Hasidic authorities as a danger for the cohesion of the Jewry and the traditional Jewish way of life.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_50">26</a> In addition, the Hasidic teaching that the Tzadik could vicariously perform religious duties for his followers could be understood as dangerously antinomian &#8211; an interpretation which was strengthened by the observation that some Hasidim demonstrated a lack of seriousness in regard to certain matters of ritual and Halacha and were not ashamed to use distilled spirits to stimulate their religious feelings.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_52">27</a> The kernel of truth in this criticism lay in the Hasidic doctrine which suggested that one should serve God not only with the "good impulses" but also with the bad.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_54">28</a> As far as the function of the Rebbe is concerned, Jacob Joseph of Polnoy had already developed the teaching that the Tzadik was &#8211; through introspection or even through an intentional soteriological violation of the commandments &#8211; to find a particle of guilt within himself in order to expunge the guilt of others and contribute to the redemption of the world.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_56_marker57" title=' Cf. Morgenstern, Halachische Schriftauslegung 2006, pp. 42&#8211;44. This notion is quite similar to that sometimes cited in the context of Sabbateanism of "redemption via sin"; on this point, cf. Scholem, Erl&#246;sung durch S&#252;nde 1992.'><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_56">29</a> In this context, the Hasidic communal life with its dance and song raised the suspicions of some contemporaries. Critics also observed that the charismatic exercises of the men were only possible because the women provided for their material existence and, furthermore, that Hasidism contributed more than a little to the solidification of already indefensible social conditions in Eastern Europe.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_58">30</a> One of the most well known contemporary critics from the ranks of the Jewish Enlightenment (<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/threads/european-networks/jewish-networks/marie-schumacher-brunhes-enlightenment-jewish-style-the-haskalah-movement-in-europe" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Haskalah</a>) was <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/22945141" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Joseph Perl (1773&#8211;1839)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/joseph-perl-177320131839-en" title="Joseph Perl (1773&#8211;1839)">[<img alt='Port&#228;t von Joseph Perl, &#220;bersetzung der Inschrift: in deutscher &#220;bersetzung: "Portr&#228;t von Josef Perl Original befindet sich in der Tarnopoler Perl-Schule (nach einer in Lemberg gedruckten Stich) Image made on 19th century, printed in &#1497;&#1493;&#1505;&#1507; &#1508;&#1506;&#1512;&#1500;&#1505; &#1497;&#1497;&#1491;&#1497;&#1513;&#1506; &#1499;&#1514;&#1489;&#1497;&#1501;, Vilna 1937. Bildquelle: Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Perl.jpg' class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/haskalah-bilderordner/joseph-pearl-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Joseph Perl (1773&#8211;1839) IMG">]</a>, who published a satirical pamphlet in German in 1816 with the title "&#220;ber das Wesen der Sekte Chassidim" (On the nature of the sect of the Hasidim).<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_60">31</a> The Jewish historian <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/41590" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Simon Dubnow (1860&#8211;1941)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/simon-dubnow-at-the-first-yivo-conference-in-vilnius" title="Simon Dubnow">[<img alt="Simon Dubnow (standing, center) at the 1st international YIVO conference, Vilna, Poland. Other historians and notables on the stage and dais include (seated, from left) Joseph Tshernikhov, Elias Tcherikower, Yankev Botoshansky; (behind Botoshansky&#8217;s left shoulder) Zelig Kalmanovitch; (to Dubnow&#8217;s right) Ignacy Schiper; (behind Dubnow&#8217;s right shoulder) Rafail Abramovich; (seated, first to fourth from right) Yudl Mark, Yankev Shatzky, Max Weinreich, Zalmen Reyzen; (standing behind Weinreich), Nakhman Meisel. The portrait of Tsema&#7717; Szabad (right) is draped in black in commemoration of his death, which had occurred a few months earlier." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/juedische-netzwerke-bilderordner/dubnow.jpg/@@images/image/thumb" title="Simon Dubnow auf der 1. YIVO-Konferenz in WilnaIMG">]</a> also harshly criticized the Hasidic movement; in the stories of Rabbi Nachman of Braslav, Dubnow could only see a fever-induced fantasy.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_62">32</a>
Regarding religious matters, there were halakhic disputes and congregational political arguments in various locations. In Lithuania, Hasidism finally encountered organised resistance, which crystallised around Rabbi <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/14928390" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman (1720&#8211;1797)</a>, the Gaon ("exceptional Talmud Scholar") of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4066228-7" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Vilnius</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/the-gaon-of-vilnius-rabbi-elijah-ben-shlomo-zalman-172020131797" title="Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman (1720&#8211;1797)"><img alt="Unbekannter K&#252;nstler, Portr&#228;t des Gaon von Wilna (1720-1797), &#214;lgem&#228;lde 1915. Bildquell: Wikimedia: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vilna_Gaon_authentic_portrait.JPG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/der-gaon-von-wilna-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Der Gaon von Wilna IMG"></a>. Aside from the ritual innovations which the Hasidim had introduced, the Gaon rejected the mystical enthusiastic devotional practice and the Rebbe's mediatory role because these things went hand-in-hand with the ignorance of the Rebbe's followers who had abandoned the traditional study of the Talmud and rabbinical literature. Although he himself had kabbalist inclinations and had belonged to an ascetic group of Hasidism in his youth, by the end of his life, Rabbi Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman had become a leading figure of the anti-Hasidic opposition in Lithuania ("Mitnagdim", literally: "opponents"). In the course of the conflict with Chabad Hasidism he made the congregation in Vilnius to officially ban this competing movement in 1772. In 1781 the ban was renewed and Hasidic books were burned. The conflict escalated in the years after 1790, when both sides asked the political authorities for help in their bitter fight. Although the conflict between Hasidim and Mitnagdim continued in the following decades and in principle into the twentieth century as well, there was a also a rapprochement between the two groups. This was possible for two reasons: first of all, the Hasidim repeatedly emphasised the basic validity of traditional religious law. They thereby minimised their antinomian tendencies and began a gradual return to the traditional practice of Talmudic study in various forms.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_64_marker65" title=" Some authors emphasise the common heritage and interests of Hasidim and Mitnagdim in regard to the future path of the Jewry in general: cf. Hasdai, Hasidim and Mitnaggedim 1988."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_64">33</a> In addition, both religious groups were held together by their common opposition to the Jewish Enlightenment.
<h2>The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries</h2>
Starting in the mid-nineteenth century, the spread of the Jewish Enlightenment and the secularisation stopped the growth of Hasidism within the Jewish population. "The very rise of the Haskalah served as evidence that Hasidism had become outmoded. Rather than a progressive force, it became a stumbling block on the road of development&#8230;."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_66">34</a> After years of expansion, the Hasidim adopted a more passive role and attempted to preserve their lifestyle by opposing the modern ideas of Enlightenment, Jewish nationalism and socialism. The sole innovative element of Hasidism in the second half of the nineteenth century was the introduction of methods of studying the Torah which were similar to those employed by the Lithuanian Mitnagdim &#8211; an attempt to actively oppose the advance of the Haskalah.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_68_marker69" title=" The foundation of Hasidic Talmud schools (Yeshivot) is an expression of this change, for example, the school founded by Abraham Bornstein (1839&#8211;1910) in the 1860s in Sochaczew or the Tomchei Temimim teaching institution founded by Sholom Dov Ber Schneersohn (1860&#8211;1920) in Lyubavichi in 1896."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_68">35</a> The vehement rejection of secular <a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/threads/transnational-movements-and-organisations/international-organisations-and-congresses/kerstin-armborst-weihs-the-formation-of-the-jewish-national-movement-through-transnational-exchange-zionism-in-europe-up-to-the-first-world-war-1914">Zionism</a> as propagated by <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/76317061" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Theodor Herzl (1860&#8211;1904)</a> led the diverse Hasidic groups at the beginning of the twentieth century to seek a cooperation with their former Lithuanian opponents and the neo-orthodox German Jews. In 1912 the <a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/de/threads/transnationale-bewegungen-und-organisationen/internationale-organisationen-und-kongresse/tobias-grill-antizionistische-juedische-bewegungen">anti-Zionist</a> orthodox organisation "Agudat" was founded in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4097725-0" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Katowice</a> in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042978-7" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Upper Silesia</a> with the significant participation of the Gerer Rebbe R. <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/38068646" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Aryeh L&#246;b ben Avraham Mordechai Alter (1866&#8211;1948)</a><a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/the-gerer-rebbe-r.-aryeh-loeb-ben-avraham-mordechai-alter-186620131948" title="Aryeh L&#246;b ben Avraham Mordechai Alter (1866&#8211;1948)">[<img alt="Portr&#228;t des Gerer Rebben R. Arjeh L&#246;b ben Abraham Mordechai Alter; Bildquelle: J&#252;disches Lexikon, Berlin 1927, vol. II, Sp. 1026." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/r.-arjeh-loeb-ben-abraham-mordechai-alter-der-gerer-rebbe-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Der Gerer Rebbe R. Arjeh L&#246;b ben Abraham Mordechai Alter (1866&#8211;1948) IMG">]</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_70">36</a> This involvement led Gershom Scholem to allege that Hasidism had sunk &#8220;into a political instrument of reactionary forces".<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_72">37</a> The Gerer Hasidim benefitted from these activities after World War I because they had been able to gain political experience which they then used in the re-established Polish state and parliament.
The First World War and the new geopolitical boundaries between the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4039677-0" rel="noopener" target="_blank">central European countries</a> had significant implications for various Hasidic groups. Many Hasidim were forced to flee from their native regions and settled in large cities, where they remained after the war. There they were, however, often cut off from the courts of their Rebbes.
In the 1920s, after several years of dynastic turmoil among small Hasidic groups in eastern Hungary, a Hasidic movement was reestablished under the leadership of Rabbi <a class="external-link" data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/86219149" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Yoel Teitelbaum (1888&#8211;1979)</a> in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4118447-6" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Satu Mare</a> (Yiddish, Satmar, in northern <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4054835-1" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Transylvania</a>). This movement is somewhat isolated within Hasidism because of its religious extremism, its organisational separatism (it rejected participation in the Agudat Israel), and its extreme anti-Zionism.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_74_marker75" title=" Cf. Rubin, An Island 1972, pp. 34&#8211;40; on Hasidism in Hungary, cf. Poll, The Hasidic Community 1962, p. 26. During the Holocaust, Teitelbaum was saved by the Zionist activist Rudolf Kasztner (1906&#8211;1957) who negotiated with Nazi officials on his behalf. He was able to escape into Switzerland. On the radical anti-Zionism of Hungarian Hasidism, see also Aviezer Ravitzky, Messianism 1993."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_74">38</a>
The most important changes came, however, as a result of the Russian Revolution. Rabbi <a class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/46898179" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn (1880&#8211;1950)</a> of Lyubavichi, who opposed the communists, was arrested in 1927 and sentenced to death for counterrevolutionary activities. Only after global protests was he freed and allowed to emigrate from the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4077548-3" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Soviet Union</a> to <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4074187-4" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Latvia</a>. After the outbreak of World War II, he was able to flee to the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4078704-7" rel="noopener" target="_blank">USA</a>, where he settled in the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042011-5" rel="noopener" target="_blank">New York</a> neighbourhood of Crown Heights. In 1948 Lubavitcher Hasidim founded the community of Kfar Chabad approximately eight kilometres southeast of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027808-6" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Tel Aviv</a>, which houses numerous educational institutions and is the centre of the Chabad movement in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027808-6" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Israel</a>.<a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/en/mediainfo/kfar-chabad-house-of-the-rebbe" title="Kfar Chabad (House of the Rebbe)"><img alt="Photograph: Matthias Morgenstern, 1991." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/chassidismus-bilderordner/haus-des-rebben-in-kfar-chabad-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Kfar Chabad (Haus des Rebben) IMG"></a>
During the <a class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/resolveuid/d8a200b7adbba19eb407606699404e80">Holocaust</a>, the remaining Hasidic centres in Eastern Europe were destroyed and the Hasidim who lived there murdered.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_76">39</a> After the war, the surviving Rebbes immigrated to North America (like the Satmarer and Lubavitcher Hasidim) or to Palestine (like the Gerer, the Belzer, and the Vizhnitzer Hasidim) and reestablished their courts. Although most Hasidim continued to oppose Zionism, new Hasidic centres and settlements were founded in Bnei Brak (near Tel Aviv) and Kfar Hasidim. Following the formation of the state of Israel, the Hasidic courts of Ger, Belz, and Vyzhnytsia were involved &#8211; with varying levels of intensity &#8211; in the Agudat Israel movement, which now functioned as a political party with parliamentary representation. This led to the weakening of anti-Zionist rhetoric among these groups, while &#160;Satmar Hasidism, led from its centre in New York, maintained and strengthened its anti-Zionist enthusiasm in the course of the twentieth century.<span class="InsertNoteMarker" id="InsertNoteID_78_marker79" title=" Cf. Morgenstern, Kampf um den Staat 1990. In 2006 about 180,000 Hasidim lived in the USA &#8211; about half of the total number of orthodox Jews and three percent of the approximately six million Jews in the United States. Cf. Hoover, Hasidic Population 2010."><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_78">40</a>
<a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/1472153775042461550003/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Yeshayahu P. Balog (born 1976)">Yeshayahu P. Balog</a>
<a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/42978493/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Matthias Morgenstern (born 1959)">Matthias Morgenstern</a>
</div> <h2>Appendix</h2>
<h3>Sources</h3>
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Buber, Martin: Der gro&#223;e Maggid und seine Nachfolge, Frankfurt am Main 1922. URL:&#160;<a href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hebis:30-180014504009" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hebis:30-180014504009</a> [2020-08-12]
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Morgenstern, Matthias: Von Frankfurt nach Jerusalem: Isaac Breuer und die Geschichte des "Austrittsstreits" in der deutsch-j&#252;dischen Orthodoxie (Schriftenreihe wissenschaftlicher Abhandlungen des Leo Baeck Instituts 52), T&#252;bingen 1995.
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Peli, Alexander (ed.): Encyclopaedia Hebraica (hebr.), Jerusalem 1949, vol. 17.
Poll, Salomon: The Hasidic Community of Williamsburg, New York 1962.
Rapoport-Albert, Ada: The Hasidic Movement after 1772: Continuity and Change (hebr.), in: Zion (56), Jerusalem 1990, pp. 183&#8211;245. URL:&#160;<a href="https://www.academia.edu/42043710/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/42043710/</a> [2020-08-12]
Ravitzky, Aviezer: Messianism, Zionism and Jewish Religious Radicalism (hebr.), Tel Aviv 1993.
Rosman, Moshe: Founder of Hasidism: A Quest for the Historical Ba'al Shem Tov, Berkeley (CA) et al. 1996.
Roth, Cecil (ed.): Encyclopaedia Judaica, Jerusalem et al. 1971, vol. 8.
Rubin, Israel: Satmar: An Island in the City, Chicago 1972.
Schatz Uffenheimer, Rivka: Quietistic Elements in Eighteenth Century Hasidic Thought (hebr.), Jerusalem 1988. URL:&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400872800" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400872800</a> (englische &#220;bersetzung 1993) [2020-08-12]
Schindler, Pesach: Hasidic Responses to the Holocaust in the Light of Hasidic Thought, Hoboken (NJ) 1990.
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Scholem, Gerschom: Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, London 1955.
Scholem, Gerschom: Martin Bubers Auffassung des Judentums, in: Judaica 2, Frankfurt am Main 1970, pp. 133&#8211;192.
Singer, Isidore (ed.): The Jewish Encyclopedia, New York et al. 1904, vol. 6. URL:&#160;<a href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hebis:30-180012359074" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hebis:30-180012359074</a> [2020-08-12]
Wertheim, Aharon: Law and Custom in Hasidism, Hoboken (NJ) 1992.
Wilensky, Mordecai L.: Hasidic-Mitnaggedic Polemics in the Jewish Communities of Eastern Europe: The Hostile Phase, in: Gershon David Hundert (ed.): Essential Papers on Hasidism: Origins to Present, New York et al. 1991, pp. 244&#8211;271.
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ol id="InsertNote_NoteList" type="1">
<li id="InsertNoteID_0"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_0_marker1">^</a> Scholem, Jewish Mysticism, p. 328.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_2"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_2_marker3">^</a> For a biography of the Besht from a historical perspective see Rosman, Founder of Hasidism 1996; on the Besht and his role, cf. also Etkes, The Besht 2005.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_4"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_4_marker5">^</a> For an analysis of the Besht's correspondence, see Lamm, The Religious Thought 1995, pp. 541&#8211;555.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_6"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_6_marker7">^</a> Pilpulistic (Hebrew, "pilpul" from "pilel", i.e. "pepper") refers to the method of teaching and discussing practiced at eastern European orthodox Talmud academies; the astute listing of all arguments and counterarguments was intended to clarify texts. Among the Hasidic opponents (and among those influenced by the Jewish Enlightenment) of this classical Jewish technique, the term acquired a negative connotation in the sense of "splitting hairs", "nit-picking" and intellectual aloofness.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_8"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_8_marker9">^</a> Maier, Geschichte 1972, p. 507.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_10"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_10_marker11">^</a> Cf. Buber, Der gro&#223;e Maggid 1992.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_12"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_12_marker13">^</a> Cf. Halpern, The Hasidic Immigration 1946; Barnai, The Historiography 1996.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_14"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_14_marker15">^</a> Cf. Ettinger, The Hasidic Movement 1991. Ada Rapoport-Albert has demonstrated the fallacy of the common portrayal of Hasidism as a centralised movement in the first two generations before the death of the Great Maggid in 1772. There were already various Hasidic centres during the life of the Besht, and during the lifespan of the Great Maggid the movement remained decentralised. It seems that the death of Dov Ber of Mezritsh, the Polish divisions, and the polemic of the Mitnagdim caused little change in this regard. The development of different Hasidic centres with the corresponding Rebbes was a result then of this pre-existing decentralised structure. This view is also compatible with the social structure of the Jewish communities in Eastern Europe before the establishment of Hasidism. See Rapoport-Albert, The Hasidic Movement 1990.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_16"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_16_marker17">^</a> Cf. Idel, Hasidism 1995, pp. 9&#8211;17.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_18"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_18_marker19">^</a> Ibid., p. 18.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_20"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_20_marker21">^</a> Cf. Etkes, The Study of Hasidism 1996.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_22"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_22_marker23">^</a> Cf. Buber, Gog und Magog 1957.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_24"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_24_marker25">^</a> Cf. Katz, Tradition 1971, p. 227&#8211;229.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_26"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_26_marker27">^</a> On the doctrine of Jacob Joseph Kohen of Polnoy, cf. Dresner, The Zaddik 1974.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_28"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_28_marker29">^</a> See Katz, Tradition 1971, pp. 235ff.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_30"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_30_marker31">^</a> Cf. Maier, Geschichte 1972, p. 511.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_32"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_32_marker33">^</a> This can be explained linguistically as follows: the Hebrew substantive "Hasid" (as used in reference to modern Hasidism and as opposed to the medieval "Chassidei Ashkenaz") never stands alone without an accompanying genitive. A Hasid can thus only be referred to as the follower of a particular Rebbe. For example, in Hebrew, one must be a "Hasid Gur" (i.e., a follower of the Gerer Rebbe), a "Hassid Braslav" (i.e., a follower of the Rabbi Nachman of Braslav), or a "Hasid Lubavitch" (a follower of the Rebbe in Lyubavichi), etc.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_34"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_34_marker35">^</a> Katz, Tradition 1971, p. 236.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_36"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_36_marker37">^</a> On the theology of Tzadikism and the social role of the Tzadik, cf. also Etkes, The Zaddik 1996.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_38"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_38_marker39">^</a> Cf. Buber, Die Erz&#228;hlungen 1906, and Brocke, Die Erz&#228;hlungen 1985, p. 298f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_40"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_40_marker41">^</a> Cf. Cunz, Die Fahrt 1997, pp. 49&#8211;60. The term "hermeneutische Pantomime" comes from Ouaknin, Lire aux &#233;clats 1992, p. 345.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_42"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_42_marker43">^</a> On the teachings of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, cf. Elior, The Paradoxical Ascent 1993.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_44"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_44_marker45">^</a> Maier, Geschichte 1972, p. 521.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_46"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_46_marker47">^</a> Cf. Ehrlich, Leadership 2000, p. 48. This sober underlying character of classical Lubavitcher Hasidism deserves special emphasis in light of the messianic exuberance which swept through this group at the end of the twentieth century.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_48"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_48_marker49">^</a> For a thorough examination of Hasidic practice in relation to Jewish religious law, see Wertheim, Law and Custom 1992.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_50"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_50_marker51">^</a> For a good overview of these controversies, cf. Wilensky, Hasidic-Mitnaggedic Polemics 1991.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_52"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_52_marker53">^</a> Cf. Maier, Geschichte 1972, p. 509.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_54"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_54_marker55">^</a> Cf. Jacobson, Hasidic Thought 1985, pp. 130&#8211;133.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_56"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_56_marker57">^</a> Cf. Morgenstern, Halachische Schriftauslegung 2006, pp. 42&#8211;44. This notion is quite similar to that sometimes cited in the context of Sabbateanism of "redemption via sin"; on this point, cf. Scholem, Erl&#246;sung durch S&#252;nde 1992.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_58"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_58_marker59">^</a> Maier, Geschichte 1972, p. 511.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_60"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_60_marker61">^</a> Cf. the new edition of this text published under the supervision of Rubinstein in 1977.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_62"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_62_marker63">^</a> Brocke, Die Erz&#228;hlungen 1985, p. 298.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_64"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_64_marker65">^</a> Some authors emphasise the common heritage and interests of Hasidim and Mitnagdim in regard to the future path of the Jewry in general: cf. Hasdai, Hasidim and Mitnaggedim 1988.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_66"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_66_marker67">^</a> Mahler, Hasidism 1985, p. xv.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_68"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_68_marker69">^</a> The foundation of Hasidic Talmud schools (Yeshivot) is an expression of this change, for example, the school founded by Abraham Bornstein (1839&#8211;1910) in the 1860s in Sochaczew or the Tomchei Temimim teaching institution founded by Sholom Dov Ber Schneersohn (1860&#8211;1920) in Lyubavichi in 1896.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_70"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_70_marker71">^</a> Cf. Morgenstern, Von Frankfurt nach Jerusalem 1995, pp. 56&#8211;60.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_72"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_72_marker73">^</a> Scholem, Jewish Mysticism, p. 325.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_74"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_74_marker75">^</a> Cf. Rubin, An Island 1972, pp. 34&#8211;40; on Hasidism in Hungary, cf. Poll, The Hasidic Community 1962, p. 26. During the Holocaust, Teitelbaum was saved by the Zionist activist Rudolf Kasztner (1906&#8211;1957) who negotiated with Nazi officials on his behalf. He was able to escape into Switzerland. On the radical anti-Zionism of Hungarian Hasidism, see also Aviezer Ravitzky, Messianism 1993.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_76"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_76_marker77">^</a> On the fate and activities of Hasidic Rebbes during the period of the Holocaust, cf. Schindler, Hasidic Responses 1990.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_78"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/religious-and-confessional-spaces/yeshayahu-balog-matthias-morgenstern-hasidism#InsertNoteID_78_marker79">^</a> Cf. Morgenstern, Kampf um den Staat 1990. In 2006 about 180,000 Hasidim lived in the USA &#8211; about half of the total number of orthodox Jews and three percent of the approximately six million Jews in the United States. Cf. Hoover, Hasidic Population 2010.</li>
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