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 <meta name="description" content="The Thirty Years' War (1618&#8211;1648) became a media phenomenon, manifesting itself in different ways depending on the functions of the age's various media types. Newspapers, informative pamphlets and (usually schematic) visual representations served chiefly to provide information about facts and events, although &quot;small,&quot; non-essential incidents were also covered. The task of Messrelationen and synthetic, regularly appearing accounts was to put the events in order but also to interpret them; the boundary separating them from propaganda was fluid. Pamphlets provided a space for discussions about the causes of war, its actual object, and the possible courses of action open to the governments, including the question of alliances. Naturally, advice shifted with the development of the war. Some media, for example medals and illustrated broadsheets, construed the war synthetically and allegorically."><meta name="copyright" content="IEG Mainz">
 
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		<title>The Thirty Years' War as a European Media Event &#8212; EGO </title>
	<meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="DC.Title" content="The Thirty Years' War as a European Media Event"><meta name="DC.Source" content="EGO(http://www.ieg-ego.eu)"><meta name="DC.Date.Issued" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CTDF" content="2017-11-28"><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="WorldCathttp://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1085543010"><meta name="DC.Rights" content="CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works"><meta name="DC.Description" content="The Thirty Years' War (1618&#8211;1648) became a media phenomenon, manifesting itself in different ways depending on the functions of the age's various media types. Newspapers, informative pamphlets and (usually schematic) visual representations served chiefly to provide information about facts and events, although 'small,' non-essential incidents were also covered. The task of Messrelationen and synthetic, regularly appearing accounts was to put the events in order but also to interpret them; the boundary separating them from propaganda was fluid. Pamphlets provided a space for discussions about the causes of war, its actual object, and the possible courses of action open to the governments, including the question of alliances. Naturally, advice shifted with the development of the war. Some media, for example medals and illustrated broadsheets, construed the war synthetically and allegorically."><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="urn:nbn:de:0159-2017103066"><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" scheme="DCMIType"><meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" scheme="IMT"><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="generator" content="Plone - http://plone.com"></head>
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	<h1>The Thirty Years' War as a European Media Event</h1>
	<div class="documentByLine" id="document-byline">
 
			von 
			by 
 Esther-Beate K&#246;rber
		Original aufOriginal in German,
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 	Thirty Years' War as European
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 The Thirty Years' War (1618&#8211;1648) became a media phenomenon, manifesting itself in different ways depending on the functions of the age's various media types. Newspapers, informative pamphlets and (usually schematic) visual representations served chiefly to provide information about facts and events, although "small," non-essential incidents were also covered. The task of Messrelationen and synthetic, regularly appearing accounts was to put the events in order but also to interpret them; the boundary separating them from propaganda was fluid. Pamphlets provided a space for discussions about the causes of war, its actual object, and the possible courses of action open to the governments, including the question of alliances. Naturally, advice shifted with the development of the war. Some media, for example medals and illustrated broadsheets, construed the war synthetically and allegorically.
 
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 <blockquote><a data-class="external-link" href="https://ehne.fr/article/humanisme-europeen/leurope-des-guerres-de-religion/guerres-de-religion-sans-frontieres" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title=" Guerres de religion sans fronti&#232;res (EHNE) ">See also the article "Guerres de religion sans fronti&#232;res" in the EHNE.</a></blockquote>
<h2>Introduction: Media and their functions in the Thirty Years' War</h2>
The Thirty Years' War (1618&#8211;1648) developed from a political and confessional conflict between the German Emperor <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/291482450" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ferdinand II (1578&#8211;1637)">Ferdinand II (1578&#8211;1637)</a> and the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4007467-5">Bohemian</a> nobility into a European-wide war, as both sides also found allies outside of their own confessional camps. Thus peace also had to be brokered by two congresses (1648 in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/2029094-9">M&#252;nster</a> and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4043974-4">Osnabr&#252;ck</a>, hence the "Peace of Westphalia"). For the <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/threads/crossroads/political-spaces/joachim-whaley-reich" title="Reich">Holy Roman Empire</a>, it led to the legal recognition of both confessions; for Europe it entailed the necessity of dispatching permanent ambassadors and thus of establishing a system of continuous diplomatic exchange.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_0">1</a> The conflict was also the first European war regularly reported in periodically appearing media. Previously in Europe, with the exception of chronicles, only individual, easily digestible military events had been described in broadsides or pamphlets, where they were often given a religious or political interpretation. Periodically appearing media &#8211; above all <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/threads/european-media/journalism/juergen-wilke-journalism" title="Journalism">weekly newspapers</a>, which had existed in the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/2035457-5">Holy Roman Empire</a> since 1605, but also Messrelationen, which appeared biannually or triannually<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_2">2</a> &#8211; were able to follow longer developments continuously over months and years. Perhaps it was this continuous and regular reporting itself that led Europeans to think of this war as one coherent event, namely "The Thirty Years' War," and not as a chain of independent conflicts set in locations near and far.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_1">3</a>
For many European countries, the war can be considered the origin of <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/threads/backgrounds/news-distribution/andreas-wuergler-national-and-transnational-news-distribution-1400-1800" title="National and Transnational News Distribution 1400&#8211;1800">periodical reporting</a> of any kind. Beginning in 1618 in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4001783-7">Amsterdam</a>, newsletters (Nachrichtenbriefe) from Germany, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027833-5">Italy</a>, and other regions were regularly collected and printed, for example in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4031483-2">Cologne</a> as the Wochentliche Niderlandische Postzeitung.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_3">4</a> English Translations of these newsletters began appearing in 1620;<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_5">5</a> 1621 witnessed the birth of informational pamphlets called <a data-class="external-link" href="https://archive.org/details/perfectdiurnallo00londuoft" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="A Perfect diurnall of the passages in Parliament, from the 13. of June to the 20. of June 1642">"newsbooks"</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_7">6</a> The first weekly newspaper appeared in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4002364-3">Antwerp </a>(Nieuwe tidinghen) in 1618, in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4044660-8">Paris </a>(Gazette) in 1631.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_9">7</a> In the Empire, the war provided the impetus for the founding of numerous new weeklies in cities such as <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4024881-1">Hildesheim</a>, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4022987-7">Halberstadt </a>and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4058282-6">Stuttgart</a>.
These were not the only periodically appearing media during the Thirty Years' War. Unlike today, when all media are integrated in the virtual web, the media of the seventeenth century did not so easily cross over with one another. Print media were literally characterized by different formats: octavo for information meant to be transportable, such as a prayer book; quarto for Messrelationen as well as most newspapers and pamphlets; folio for illustrated broadsheets, but also for chronicles or the political newspaper Theatrum europaeum.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_4">8</a> Hand-written newsletters (often called Zeitungen, i.e. "newspapers," as the word Zeitung then meant "news") also circulated, assembled each week by paid scribes and adhering to no standardized form. In addition, there were compilations of newsletters or digests referred to as (hand-)written newspapers, or Fuggerzeitungen<a data-class="external-link" href="http://fuggerzeitungen.univie.ac.at" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Die Fuggerzeitungen; Digital Copy: University of Vienna"><img alt="Fuggerzeitung 1581 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/nachrichtenkommunikation-bilderordner/fuggerzeitung-1581-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Fuggerzeitung 1581 IMG"></a>,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_6">9</a> broadsheets illustrated with woodcuts or engravings,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_8">10</a> and news songs, performed by travelling entertainers (male and female).<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_10">11</a> <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/threads/backgrounds/media-genres/juergen-wilke-media-genres" title="Media Genres">Media </a>used various "channels" (<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/threads/backgrounds/the-book-market/ernst-fischer-the-book-market" title="The Book Market">print</a>, <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/threads/backgrounds/literacy/robert-a-houston-literacy" title="Literacy">manuscript</a>, image, sound, drama), and each medium could perform several functions. These functions &#8211; not the "format" or "channel" of the medium &#8211; determined how "the war" was presented in each medium and how it "arrived." If the Thirty Years' War is to be characterized as a media phenomenon, it must be shown in which of its aspects and in what ways the war was taken up and diffused in the media of its time. In turn, this is only possible by considering the function individual media had, that is, by asking what they were meant to achieve or effect. It is possible to distinguish four tasks performed by media in the Thirty Years' War: (1) the reporting of facts, (2) putting information into context, (3) commentary and agitation, and (4) synthetic, often allegorical interpretation. In what follows, these functions will provide the rubrics for explaining how the war became a media "phenomenon" in its time.
<h2>War as a chain of events and facts</h2>
In-depth research into the interpretive and commentary-driven pamphlets of the Thirty Years' War<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_12">12</a> can easily obscure the fact that by far the majority of paper in this war was used to pass on facts. While recognizing the problem that reported "facts" themselves are based on interpretation, in this context we shall treat as "facts" everything that the reporters of the time themselves considered true and communicated as such to their contemporaries.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_14">13</a> Very many media in the Thirty Years' War were mainly or overwhelmingly devoted to reporting facts in this sense: newspapers, informational pamphlets (often called "New Newspaper" (Neue Zeitung), i.e. "Latest News" after the first words of their titles)<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_16">14</a> and Messrelationen, but also some images and songs. In handwritten and print media, facticity was vouchsafed by the obligatory dateline. The dateline announced in standardized form the place and time at which the news was recorded, not of the events themselves. If an event could be dated, this information had to be given a second time, as in the following newsletter, printed in a <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4036934-1">Magdeburg</a> Messrelation of 1620:
<blockquote>Prague, 8 March. Today the enemy left Budweis and captured Belltschitz, then came to Wittlingau, torched the outskirts, and began to fire upon the city. Our soldiers, however, four patrols strong, defended themselves so staunchly that the enemy had to retreat. (&#8230;) On the 3rd (of March) His Majesty left Breslau for Lausitz. He is awaited here within eight days, on the 19th the baptism will take place, and thereafter His Majesty will go personally to the front.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_18">15</a></blockquote>
This excerpt provides a typical example of the form in which the war "arrived" in newsletters and, through them (to the extent that they acted as the ultimate source of information), in all other "fact-reporting" media. Geographical terms or numbers were provided with precision in order to attest to the report's concern for truth. Who "the enemy" and "our soldiers" were, however, was left to the reader to decipher. In order to understand the reports, it was necessary to know the present military situation and the state of alliances. Individual events were described as precisely as possible, but briefly and without embellishment. The build-up of suspense, although not unknown, was frowned upon in news reporting, as can be seen from the short report in the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4018118-2">Frankfurt</a> Messrelation<a data-class="external-link" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:1-355416" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continuatio 1618"><img alt="Historicae Relationis Continuatio IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/nachrichtenkommunikation-bilderordner/historicae-relationis-continuatio-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Historicae Relationis Continuatio IMG"></a> about the Defenestration of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4076310-9">Prague</a>:
<blockquote>When the Supreme Burggrave and Kreuzherr Popel, Grand Prior of Our Lady, had reached a rather solid agreement with them, but the supreme Landhofrichter (judge) Slawata and Mr. Schmisansky dissented, the Estates bid the first two stand aside and had Mr. Slawata and Mr. Schmisansky along with the secretary Master Philipp thrown from the chancery window &#8211; at a great height &#8211; down into the ditch. As God willed, however, all three survived.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_20">16</a></blockquote>
Names, offices, and titles were given precisely, but no additional or background information was provided; the reporter did not reflect at all on the importance of the event. Indeed, this report assumed a great deal of knowledge. The reader had to know who "the Estates" were and at least have a sense of the meanings of the titles in order to contextualize the event. The pure reporting of events during the Thirty Years' War often (although not always) dispensed with background information and explanations. Thus news required a great deal of prior knowledge on the part of readers &#8211; or the aptitude and the opportunity for familiarizing themselves with the contents of news reports over a longer period of time.
The Prague newsletter shows, furthermore, that not only the spectacular, "big" or "decisive" events found their way into the media reports of the time but also smaller encounters and even unsuccessful undertakings, which did not appear at all in irregular media. The reason for this status accorded to small military incidents lay in the short intervals between reporting that characterized many news media. Newsletters and newspapers appeared weekly; their writers, compilers and editors thus had to regularly and speedily fill a minimum amount of paper with news, for which they were paid. This quota could not be met by "big" events alone, nor could the latter be relied upon to provide regular material. In addition, the meaning of a battle or an event could at times only be determined at a distance of some time, which the writer of a newsletter or a newspaper, who had to be up-to-date, did not have.
More voluminous writings could also deal with longer-term developments. The typical longer-range "event" during the Thirty Years' War was the siege. The siege report was a standard genre of independent, non-periodical publications<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_22">17</a> and Messrelationen. In irregularly appearing publications the occurrence was chronologically summarized, whereas in Messrelationen it was separated into discrete, often widely dispersed sections, the "most recent" of which ought to be as current as possible. A siege report usually provided a precise description of what happened on each day. It ended either with the withdrawal of the besieging troops or with conquest, which usually took place not as an assault but mostly via an "accord," an agreement preceded by negotiations between the commander of the besieging troops and the commandant of the stronghold (or his representatives).<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_24">18</a> If the necessary space was available in the publication, the "accord" would be printed there verbatim and in full.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_26">19</a>
This kind of factual reporting was also performed by many engravings depicting events of the war, such as a bombardment or the deployment of troops around a stronghold<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/conquest-of-the-city-of-pilsen-in-bohemia" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Conquest of the City of Pilsen in Bohemia"><img alt="Georg Keller (1568&#8211;1634): Abri&#223; der Statt Pilsen. Wie dieselbige Belagert gest&#252;rmet undt Eingenohmen worden: Anno 1619, Kupferstich, 31 x 26 cm, 1627, in: Michael Caspar Lundorp, &#214;streichischer Lorberkrantz Oder Kayserl: Victori.; Bildquelle: Digitalisat Universit&#228;ts- und Landesbibliothek D&#252;sseldorf, http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-110363. Mit freundlicher Genehmigung." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/die-eroberung-der-stadt-pilsen-in-boehmen-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die Eroberung der Stadt Pilsen in B&#246;hmen IMG"></a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_28">20</a> Such images required a lengthy production process and thus are not to be compared to photography; instead, they provided a belated and often a rather schematic "picture" of the events described in reports. Apparently dramatic and "current" images were actually produced long after the events. An example is the Defenestration of Prague<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/defenestration-of-prague" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Defenestration of Prague"><img alt="Matth&#228;us Merian d. &#196;. (1593&#8211;1650): Prager Fenstersturz 1618, Kupferstich, 140 x 103 mm; Bildquelle: ders. u.a., Theatrum Europaeum, vol. 1, Frankfurt am Main 1662, S. 16; Digitalisat: Universit&#228;tsbibliothek Augsburg, Signatur 02/IV.13.2.26-1, S. 12, https://media.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/node?id=38607." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/prager-fenstersturz-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Prager Fenstersturz IMG"></a>, which, although the ostensible trigger of the war, was only visually rendered in 1640.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_30">21</a> The majority of images from the Thirty Years' War showed static, motionless subjects, such as the plan of a stronghold or an elevated view of the same structure surrounded by troops, usually marked with letters or numbers whose meaning was explained elsewhere<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/the-siege-of-breda-1624" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="The Siege of Breda 1624"><img alt="Johannes Willemszoon Blaeu: Kaart van het beleg van Breda, 1624, Obsidio Bredae per Ambrosium Spinolam Anno D. 1624, Karte, 39,1 &#215; 50 cm, 1647&#8211;1649, Bildquelle: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, [RP-P-AO-16-43A], https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/mijn/verzamelingen/77096--erik-swart/beleg-breda-1624-1625/objecten#/RP-P-AO-16-43A,10, gemeinfrei." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/die-belagerung-bredas-1624-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die Belagerung Bredas 1624 IMG"></a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_32">22</a> A bombardment could be portrayed by smoking canons<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/battle-of-wimpfen-1622" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Battle of Wimpfen 1622"><img alt="Matth&#228;us Merian d. &#196;. (1593&#8211;1650): Die Schlacht bei Wimpfen, Kupferstich, 1635; Bildquelle: ders. u.a., Theatrum Europaeum, vol. 1, 3. Auflage, Franckfurt am Mayn 1662, Digitalisat Universit&#228;tsbibliothek Augsburg, Signatur 02/IV.13.2.26-1, Tafel nach S. 692, http://www.nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:384-uba000236-6, https://media.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/node?id=38677." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/die-schlacht-bei-wimpfen-1622-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die Schlacht bei Wimpfen 1622 IMG"></a>,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_34">23</a> by lines indicating the direction of fire,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_36">24</a> or by shot trajectories.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_38">25</a>
Facts were also typically reported in the form of lists, for example of troop numbers and regimental commanders.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_40">26</a> Such lists were published at the beginning of a campaign and were supposed to show which commanders were taking on soldiers or simply to demonstrate the strength of one's own side. In the wake of a successful siege, the victors published lists of provisions, material, or other goods found in the conquered stronghold.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_42">27</a> After battles it was common for both sides to have lists printed of the officers who had been captured or killed.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_44">28</a> Prisoners could be released for money ("ransomed"), unless they preferred to change masters.
<h2>War as a context for events (with propagandistic undertones)</h2>
Media that appeared less often and in greater volume per issue, including Messrelationen but also independent single publications, supplemented the "dry" factual reports with official documents and comprehensive descriptions. In this way, the reported facts were simultaneously embedded into contexts of all kinds, and military movements or the particular role of individuals stood out. For example, a German-language song in 11 verses (by <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/32935521" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Marcus Liborius Vulturnus">Marcus Liborius Vulturnus</a> of Tannenburg, who signed with an acronym) recounted the victory of Wallenstein's troops against Mansfeld at <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4011536-7">Dessau </a>Bridge on 5/15 April 1626, thus contributing in its own way to the broader depiction of combat.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_46">29</a> Detailed descriptions of a battle or the introduction of written documents gave the distinct impression that a report was especially saturated with facts. Such additions, however, make the transition to partisan portrayal, to stylization or to propaganda fluid. For the Thirty Years' War, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/102329912" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="G&#246;ran Rystad (born 1925)">G&#246;ran Rystad (born 1925)</a> has used the 1634 Battle of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042434-0">N&#246;rdlingen</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/battle-of-noerdlingen-1634" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Battle of N&#246;rdlingen 1634"><img alt="Matth&#228;us Merian d. &#196;. (1593&#8211;1650): Schlacht bei N&#246;rdlingen 1634, Kupferstich, 710 x 290 mm, 2 Platten; Bildquelle: ders. u.a., Theatrum Europaeum, vol. 3, Franckfurt am Mayn 1670, Digitalisat Universit&#228;tsbibliothek Augsburg, Signatur 02/IV.13.2.26-3, Tafel nach S. 334, http://www.nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:384-uba000236-6, https://media.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/node?id=100213." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/schlacht-bei-noerdlingen-1634-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Schlacht bei N&#246;rdlingen 1634 IMG"></a> to show that the military reports of all sides were edited.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_48">30</a> They were, of course, based on reports of senior officers who had taken part in the battle. These descriptions, however, went first to the war office of the court in question, where they were edited and, if necessary, supplemented with further material before they were printed and published in their final form. Thus the victors (in N&#246;rdlingen the Emperor and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4055964-6">Spain</a>) could underscore the achievements of their armies and commanders, whereas the losers remained unaware of the seriousness of their defeat or downplayed it. The first report about the Battle of N&#246;rdlingen in the Frankfurt Messrelation of autumn 1635 ended on a hopeful note, quoting Duke <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/8181113" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar (1604&#8211;1639)">Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar's (1604&#8211;1639)</a> determination "to gather his scattered troops" so as to then "oppose the enemy with full force."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_50">31</a> Only the following spring would the scale of the defeat become clear and finally admitted: "And although at the beginning the imperial side suffered no small harm, (&#8230;) it should be accounted nothing or only slight in comparison with the Swedish defeat."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_52">32</a>
That the publication of documents in the Thirty Years' War could function as propaganda is illustrated by the so-called "chancery episode" (Kanzleistreit). During his precipitous flight from Prague, the <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/5086720/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Friedrich V. von der Pfalz (Winter King) (1596&#8211;1632) ">"Winter King" Frederick V, Elector Palatine (1596&#8211;1632)</a> was forced to leave behind portions of his chancery records.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_54">33</a> These fell into the hands of his enemies, who published a selection of them and sought thereby to prove the existence of an extensive anti-imperial alliance system.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_56">34</a>
Many writers took confessional positions despite generally seeking only to report facts, especially in intensely religiously charged situations &#8211; and before the long war had made the yearning for peace the most important topic of the day. This was hardly to be avoided in light of the confessional nature of the conflicts, and also since "judgment" sets in as soon as facts are put together in such a way that readers must assume a context of causality or, what is more, of guilt. An example is provided by the informational pamphlet "Pommerscher Verlauff"<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/pommerischer-verlauff-title-page" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Pommerischer Verlauff Title Page"><img alt="Anonymus: Pommerischer Verlauff: Das ist: Was sich vom I. May bi&#223; vff den 18. Junij dieses instehenden 1630. Jahrs, im Hertzogthumb Pommern, mit Vbergebung der P&#228;sse ... denckw&#252;rdiges zugetragen, alles auff das k&#252;rtzeste au&#223; gewissen Avisen allhier verfasset, [S.l.] 1630; Bildquelle: SLUB Dresden, http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id332399265, Creative Commons Namensnennung - Weitergabe unter gleichen Bedingungen 4.0 International, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.de." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/pommerischer-verlauff-titelblatt-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Pommerischer Verlauff Titelblatt IMG"></a> of 1630, which was assembled from newspapers and other news reports. According to this pamphlet, imperial troops were in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4046744-2">Pomerania </a>"with no small detriment to the poor subjects, ostensibly on the orders of His Imperial Majesty to resist enemies and block the passes."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_58">35</a> Although the preposition "with" denotes no causal connection, such is implied and thus the devastation of Pomerania is attributed to the imperial army. Yet even the factual analysis of events could contain judgmental notes, as evidenced by an anonymous contemporary chronicle from the year 1628. There the <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4010877-6">Danish </a>defeat at <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/2015821-X">K&#246;nigslutter </a>was described as follows:
<blockquote>17 August witnessed General Tilly's great defeat of the King of Denmark at Lutter Castle, where 6,000 Danes fell including many noble officers. This victory is thus to be set above that achieved at White Mountain.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_60">36</a></blockquote>
This extract is limited to a brief description of the fact, but it introduces a judgment by comparing &#8211; from the perspective of the victor &#8211; the victory with that over the Bohemian "Winter King" at White Mountain<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/battle-of-white-mountain" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Battle of White Mountain"><img alt="Pieter Snayers (1592&#8211;1666): Die Schlacht am Wei&#223;en Berg, &#214;l auf Leinwand, 149 x 226 cm, ca. 1620&#8211;1630. &#169; Bayerische Staatsgem&#228;ldesammlungen M&#252;nchen (Inv. Nr. 2309)." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/snayers-schlacht-am-weissen-berg.jpg/@@images/image/thumb" title="Die Schlacht am Wei&#223;en Berg bei Prag IMG"></a> and according it a higher value.
<h2>War as an Occasion for Debate and Agitation</h2>
In pamphlets, whose object lay chiefly in argumentation, debate, and judgment, the war was seldom portrayed as a series of factual events. Instead, the contesting parties debated what the war was actually about.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_62">37</a> According to Emperor Ferdinand II and his allies, the initial goal of the war was to defend the imperial right to the crown of Bohemia as stipulated by the Golden Bull of 1348. The Bohemian Estates did not recognize this right; they defended themselves and elected their own king. In addition, they believed the religious rights guaranteed them by the Bohemian Letter of Majesty (1609) had been violated.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_64">38</a> Both parties to the war thus sought to prove on the basis of legal documents, both to their own supporters and troops and to the opposing party, that their war was "just" (bellum iustum) and therefore legitimate.
Although the Reformation centenary of 1617 had probably raised tensions between the confessions in the Empire,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_66">39</a> Bohemian propaganda had little effect there. Most Lutheran Imperial Estates did not view the Bohemians as fellow believers, tended to the emperor's legal point of view, or considered themselves financially incapable of waging war. After the Bohemian defeat at the Battle of White Mountain, their king, Frederick, was lampooned as the "Winter King" &#8211; king for one winter &#8211; in many broadsides.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_68">40</a> One rebus broadside<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_70">41</a> (a form typical of the time) depicted the followers of the Elector Palatine as blind beggars and refugees<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_72">42</a> and humiliated the toppled king further with the bawdy remark that he had lost his "English garters" ("Das [Engel]lendisch [Hosen]band"; i.e. the Order of the Garter) during his escape. One broadsheet showed a postman ("Postbott") who, according to the accompanying verses, was searching for the Elector Palatine all over the country but could not find him and thus repeated the verses as a refrain: "Oh please tell me where I can find / the lost Elector Palatine?"<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_74">43</a>
As the war continued and the emperor remained militarily successful, the focus of journalism shifted to a new political problem: the idleness of the Lutheran Estates. Reformed writers warned that this Lutheran idleness paved the way for Spanish-Catholic world rule.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_76">44</a> For their part, the Lutheran Estates denounced the Reformers as unreliable alliance partners who were only waiting to get the upper hand themselves. In these arguments, the war appeared as a struggle for confessional predominance or even simply for self-preservation and for the enhancement of power. The imperial party needed no special journalistic legitimization; for it was celebrating military successes and, moreover, had an interest in keeping the Lutheran Estates quiet. In this phase, only a few Protestant pamphlets and broadsheets (of Reformed or Lutheran provenance) articulated the hope for military assistance from a saviour in the form of a biblical "Lion of Midnight."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_78">45</a>
This image, which had already appeared in 1620s journalism, redounded to the benefit of King <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/10637323" title="Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden (1594&#8211;1632)">Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden (1594&#8211;1632)</a> when he set out from "midnight" (i.e., from the north) and landed on the Baltic coast of Pomerania in 1630. Thus began the "Swedish" phase of the war, during which journalism was characterized above all by the glorification of Gustavus Adolphus. Pamphlets and broadsides depicted him as a champion of Christ, the saviour of embattled Protestantism and as an almost divine hero.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_80">46</a> The war in general was stylized as a semi-eschatological struggle for the ascendancy of Christ and the true faith. Even after Gustavus Adolphus's death at the Battle of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4036538-4">L&#252;tzen </a>in 1632<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_82">47</a>, some broadsides appeared that seemed almost to posit defiantly his further existence: "The Swede lives on!"<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_84">48</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/der-schwede-lebet-noch" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Der Schwede lebet noch"><img alt='Unbekannter K&#252;nstler: "Der Schwede lebet noch", Flugblatt, Radierung, Kupferstich, Typendruck, Einblattdruck, 1633, 14,6 x 24,5 cm (Platte); Bildquelle: Germanisches Nationalmuseum, N&#252;rnberg, Graphische Sammlung, Inventar-Nr. HB 613, Kapsel-Nr. 1314, http://objektkatalog.gnm.de/objekt/HB613.' class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/der-schwede-lebet-noch-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Der Schwede lebet noch IMG"></a>. Committing oneself to the alliance with <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4077258-5">Sweden </a>or holding to it after the king's death was thus portrayed as a religious duty of Protestants. This was the object of these countless pieces of journalistic propaganda, which issued from the presses of German and Swedish Lutherans alike.
The emperor went on the defensive journalistically, too, during this phase of the war &#8211; not only because of Swedish military successes but also because he deposed the dukes of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4038197-3">Mecklenburg</a> and replaced them with "his" general Wallenstein &#8211; Duke <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/4938591" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583&#8211;1634)">Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583&#8211;1634)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/de/mediainfo/albrecht-von-waldstein-wallenstein" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Albrecht von Waldstein (Wallenstein)">[<img alt="Albrecht von Waldstein (Wallenstein)" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/warfare-in-europe-1453-1789/albrecht-von-waldstein-wallenstein/@@images/image/thumb" title="Albrecht von Waldstein (Wallenstein)">]</a>. This move was as extraordinary as it was unlawful, and it obliged the emperor to perform elaborate justifications.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_86">49</a> The ostracism of Wallenstein four years later had at least some support in imperial custom, and the emperor could make his case more briefly.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_88">50</a>
The last great journalistic debate of the war dealt with whether Protestant Imperial Estates should subscribe to the Peace of Prague, which had been concluded in 1635 between the Emperor and the Catholic Imperial Estates and the Electorate of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4051176-5">Saxony</a>. The sufferings of the long war spoke for it, but signing the Peace meant that the Protestants would have to turn against and fight their earlier ally Sweden. Furthermore, the peace treaty guaranteed the emperor the right to once again make Catholicism the official religion in his hereditary lands. For a Protestant power, therefore, concluding peace meant on the one hand doing something essentially good but on the other abandoning both the Swedish ally and fellow believers in imperial lands.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_90">51</a> Another point was that many Protestants were not willing to accord the emperor the right to confiscate for the Catholic Church certain properties that had become Protestant, even after a transition period of forty years.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_92">52</a> This difficult decision fuelled the debate. Since most but not all the Imperial Estates subscribed to peace, the fallout from the failed Peace of Prague was doubly dire for Protestants in hereditary Habsburg lands and Bohemia. For they had to bear both war and re-Catholicization at the same time. <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/49240166" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Andreas Gryphius (1616&#8211;1664)">Andreas Gryphius (1616&#8211;1664)</a> summarized this state of affairs in the final verses of his poem "Thr&#228;nen des Vaterlands" ("Tears of the Fatherland" &#8211; namely <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4052678-1">Silesia</a>), written in 1636: "But I remain silent about what is worse than death, more horrible than plague, blaze and hunger: that so many are forced to abandon their souls' treasure."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_94">53</a> In this way he alluded to the Protestants forced to deny or abjure their faith.
<h2>War in allegorical and metaphorical interpretation</h2>
A special opportunity to depict the war visually arose from the fact that images depict not only facts but also metaphors and allegories and thus can portray ideas. Typical media for this kind of depiction were coins and medals, which were usually commissioned by rulers from goldsmiths or mint masters.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_96">54</a> In 1628, the city of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4057860-4">Stralsund </a>had the master of its mint coin medals showing the successful defence against the siege of Wallenstein's troops.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_98">55</a> The court medal-maker for the Elector of Saxony,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_100">56</a> <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/3372545" title="Sebastian Dadler (1586&#8211;1657)">Sebastian Dadler (1586&#8211;1657)</a>, minted a medal showing the Battle of Breitenfeld near <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4035206-7">Leipzig</a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_102">57</a> The image portrayed allegories of the three virtues justice, piety and fortitude under the hand of God in the clouds<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/battle-of-breitenfeld-1631" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Battle of Breitenfeld 1631"><img alt="Sebastian Dadler (1586&#8211;1657): Schlacht bei Breitenfeld, Silbermedaille, 66 mm, 1631; Bildquelle: M&#252;nzkabinett der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin - Preu&#223;ischer Kulturbesitz, Ident.Nr. 18206447, http://www.smb-digital.de/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&amp;module=collection&amp;objectId=1803323&amp;viewType=detailView, Creative Commons Namensnennung-Nicht-kommerziell-Weitergabe unter gleichen Bedingungen 3.0 Deutschland, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/de/." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/schlacht-bei-breitenfeld-1631-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Schlacht bei Breitenfeld 1631 IMG"></a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_104">58</a> The message conveyed was that the victory was not only granted by God but also achieved through the three virtues; considering that the Saxon troops fled during the battle,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_106">59</a> this medal also constitutes an attempt to drown the memory of a shameful fact in a triumphal image.
Numerous visual representations of individual military events also contain images of metaphors and allegories meant to convey particular meanings. Although they are often dubbed caricatures, these illustrations usually portrayed individuals realistically. Less realistically portrayed, in contrast, were actions and environment, depending on the metaphorical word picture employed. For example, the word "Pfaffengasse" (literally, "cleric's alley") was used as a derisive label for the domains of rich bishoprics along the Rhine and Main rivers. Some broadsides portrayed Gustavus Adolphus's military triumph as the "Midnight Lion's" stroll down "cleric's alley."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_108">60</a> Another illustrated broadside depicts Gustavus Adolphus as an eye surgeon operating on the Duke of <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4005044-0">Bavaria</a>'s cataract; meanwhile "Tille" (Tilly), who has already undergone the "operation," sits on a bench at the edge of the picture holding his aching eye shut<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/mediainfo/ein-fremder-artzet-ist-komen-an" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ein Fremder Artzet ist komen an"><img alt="Unbekannter K&#252;nstler: Ein Fremder Artzet ist komen an./ Der die plinten Recht heillen kan., Flugblatt, Kupferstich, 287 x 204 mm, ca. 1632; Bildquelle: Kunstmuseum Moritzburg Halle (Saale), http://www.museum-digital.de/nat/index.php?t=objekt&amp;oges=69830, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/ein-fremder-artzet-ist-komen-an-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ein Fremder Artzet ist komen an IMG"></a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_110">61</a> Such images represented the war as a painful but ultimately curative "operation" (the metaphor is still popular in war analysis). In addition, many broadsheets presented the war as a feast of sweetmeats<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_112">62</a> that did not go as planned. This depiction evokes a saying of the Elector of Saxony, according to whom "Tilly would break his teeth on the Saxon candy, which normally contained some hard nuts."<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_114">63</a>
An apt subject for allegories was <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/8164232" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Jean t'Serclaes de Tilly (1559&#8211;1632)">Jean t'Serclaes de Tilly's (1559&#8211;1632) </a>conquest of Magdeburg, since the name of the city is composed of the two recognizable elements "Magd" (maid) and "Burg" (place, city). Tilly, general of the Catholic league, had "conquered a virgin city" &#8211; the image seemed to elicit erotic decodings that differed depending on the viewer's confession. Protestants highlighted the violence of the event, thus designating the conquest as a rape,<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_116">64</a> as the overcoming of a city determined to defend its virginity.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_118">65</a> Catholic publications tended to emphasize the legal standpoint. They pointed out that the emperor was head of the realm and the legal lord of the city and staged Tilly's union with Magdeburg as a legitimate marriage<a data-class="external-link" href="http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/fwhb/klebeband18/0063" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Leaflet about the marriage of Magdeburg; Digital Copy: University of Heidelberg"><img alt='Unbekannter K&#252;nstler: "Capitulationes. Was gestalt Herrn General Grafen von Tylli den 20. Mai 1631. Die alte Jungfraw zu Magdeburg verheirat worden / vnd seyndt folgende Heyraths Nottel.", Flugblatt, 1631, Grafik aus dem Klebeband Nr. 18 der F&#252;rstlich Waldeckschen Hofbibliothek Arolsen, ca. 1600&#8211;1800; Bildquelle: &#169; Universit&#228;tsbibliothek Heidelberg, http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/fwhb/klebeband18/0063, Creative Commons Namensnennung-Nicht-kommerziell-Weitergabe unter gleichen Bedingungen 3.0 Deutschland, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/.' class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/dreissigjaehriger-krieg-bilderordner/flugblatt-zur-magdeburger-hochzeit-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Flugblatt zur Magdeburger Hochzeit IMG"></a>.<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_120">66</a> In war journalism, metaphorical and allegorical images were especially suited to providing a recapitulatory interpretation of individual events without having to provide reasons or arguments.
<h2>Conclusion: Effects and aftermath</h2>
It was not the medium but the occasion and the goal of a statement that determined how the Thirty Years' War and its individual events "arrived" in the media of the time. They were decisive factors for whether the war should be portrayed as a string of facts, as a context for events, as a problem to be solved through thought or action, or metaphorically in a word picture or drawn image. Of course, media could induce constraints that affected reporting. The swift publication rhythm of newspapers entailed the necessity of finding news items, thus ennobling "small" events of the war. The long production process attending most visual portrayals meant that they could not "illustrate" the war and its events but rather could only "put it into pictures" afterwards at a relatively large temporal remove from the events, through the presentation of either facts or allegories. In media as a whole the war probably appeared "more static" than contemporaries experienced it, since a majority of reports dealt with sieges and troop deployments. Those affected by the war must have perceived it as the unpredictable result of quickly shifting and terrible events. Due to the long time it took to produce media, it is uncertain whether contemporaries could actually draw personal conclusions from recent reports. In all likelihood rumours spread faster than newspapers. Nevertheless, the impetus given to media in general by the war testifies to the increasing interest in news during the period &#8211; and not only on the part of the subjects of those powers making war but also in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4014770-8">England</a>. It was probably the diffusion both of pamphlets and especially of periodical news media that helped people all over Europe perceive each other as "contemporaries." Admittedly, not all were confronted with the same events, but all could be informed about these events at approximately the same time &#8211; at least to the extent that travel conditions permitted. Of course this only holds, if at all, for those areas in which <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/anglophilia/klaus-dieter-ertler-moral-weeklies-periodical-essays" title="Moral Weeklies (Periodical Essays)">periodical reporting </a>already existed, such as in England, the Empire, the Netherlands and France. Italy had hand-written<a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_122">67</a> but no printed newspapers yet, and thus only certain interested circles had direct access to the news. This suggests that the integration of Europe might have come about thanks to news communication. However, since written newspapers have so far been studied only sporadically, it is too early to tell the extent to which this integration occurred through the consumption of news.
<a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29656639/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Esther-Beate K&#246;rber (born 1957)">Esther-Beate K&#246;rber</a>
</div> <h2>Appendix</h2>
<h3>Primary Sources</h3>
[Anonymous]: Relatio Historica Posthvma Obsidionis Heidelbergensis: Das ist: Warhafftige Beschreibung aller F&#252;rnem vnnd gedenckw&#252;rdigen Geschichten, so in Bel&#228;gerung der Churf&#252;rstlichen Pf&#228;ltzischen ResidentzStatt vnd Schlo&#223; Heydelberg, durch die Keys. Bayrische Armada erobert, sich verlauffen vnd zugetragen..., Franckfurt 1622. URL:&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.3931/e-rara-34139" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3931/e-rara-34139</a> [2021-08-12]
[Anonymous]: Nucleus historicus decennalis: das ist zehenj&#228;hrige Chronick, was sich von 1618. bi&#223; auff gegenw&#228;rtiges 1628. Jahr in und ausser dem H. R&#246;mischen Reich ..., f&#252;rnemblich aber de&#223; Kriegswesens halber begeben und zugetragen hat, N&#252;rnberg 1628. URL:&#160;<a href="https://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10890710-1" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10890710-1</a> [2021-08-12]
[Anonymous]: Pommerischer Verlauff: Das ist: Was sich vom I. May bi&#223; vff den 18. Junij dieses instehenden 1630. Jahrs, im Hertzogthumb Pommern, mit Vbergebung der P&#228;sse ... denckw&#252;<a href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-db-id3323992656" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-db-id3323992656</a> [2021-08-12]
[Anonymous]: Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continvatio, Jacobi Franci Historische Beschreibung aller denckw&#252;rdigen Geschichten/ so sich hin vnd wider in Europa/ in hoch vnd nider Teutschland/ auch in Franckreich/ Engelland/ Jtalien/ Hispanien/ Jndien/ Schweden/ Hungarn/ B&#246;hmen/ Polen/ Preussen/ Siebenb&#252;rgen/ Wallachey/ Moldaw/ T&#252;rckey/ etc. vor vnd hierzwischen nechstverschienener Franckfurter Fastenmessz/ bi&#223; auff Herbstmessz dieses 1635. Jahrs/ begeben vnd zugtragen. Alles au&#223; vberschickten glaubw&#252;rdigen Schrifften vnnd eygener Erfahrung/ beneben etlichen Kupfferst&#252;cken: Durch Sigismundi Latomi, ali&#224;s Meurers, Seel. Erben continuirt vnd verlegt. Mit R&#246;m. Keys. May. Special Privilegio. (Holzschnitt: Merkur auf Weltkugel mit Wolken.) Getruckt zu Franckfurt am Mayn/ durch Sigismundi Latomi S. Erben/ Jm Jahr M. DC. XXXV. URL:&#160;<a href="https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:1-578223" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:1-578223</a> [2021-08-12]
[Anonymous]: Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continvatio, Jacobi Franci Historische Beschreibung aller denckw&#252;rdigen Geschichten/ so sich hin vnd wider in Europa/ Hoch- vnd Nider-Teutschland/ auch in Franckreich/ Engelland vnd Schottland/ Hispanien/ Jndien/ Hungarn/ Polen/ Preussen/ Siebenb&#252;rgen/ Wallachey/ Moldaw/ T&#252;rckey/ etc. vor vnd hierzwischen nechstverschienener Franckfurter Herbstmessz 1629. bi&#223; auff Fastenmessz dieses 1630. Jahrs/ verlauffen vnd zugetragen. Alles au&#223; vberschickten glaubw&#252;rdigen Schrifften vnnd eygener Erfahrung/ beneben etlichen Kupfferst&#252;cken. Durch Sigismundi Latomi, ali&#224;s Meurers/ Seel. Erben/ continuirt vnd verlegt. Mit R&#246;m. Keys. May. Special Privilegio. (Merkur auf Weltkugel mit Wolken.) Getruckt zu Franckfurt am Mayn/ durch Sigismundi Latomi S. Erben/ im Jahr M. DC. XXX. 
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[Anonymous]: Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continuatio: Jacobi Franci Historische Beschreibung aller denckw&#252;rdigen Geschichten/ &#8230; [et]c. vor und hierzwischen nechstverschienener Franckfurter Fastenmes&#223; bi&#223; auff Herbstmes&#223; dieses 1630. Jahrs/ verlauffen und zugetragen&#8230; , Franckfurt am Mayn 1630.
[Anonymous]: Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continuatio: Jacobi Franci Historische Beschreibung aller denckw&#252;rdigen Geschichten, &#8230; [et] vor und hierzwischen nechstverschienener Franckfurter Fastenmessz bi&#223; auff Herbstmessz dieses 1634. Jahrs &#8230;, Franckfurt am Mayn 1634. URL:&#160;<a href="https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:1-578808" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:1-578808</a> [2021-08-12]
[Anonymous]: Der stetinischer Theologen Bedencken an dess Hertzogen zu Pommern F&#252;rstl. Durchl. ob der pragische Frieden-Schluss mit gutem Gewissen k&#246;nne acceptiret werden, [s.l.] 1637. URL:&#160;<a href="https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:1-29131" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:1-29131</a> [2021-08-12]
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Wilke, J&#252;rgen: Grundz&#252;ge der Medien- und Kommunikationsgeschichte, 2. revised and enlarged edition, K&#246;ln et al. 2008.
Zwierlein, Cornel: Discorso and Lex Dei: Die Entstehung neuer Denkrahmen im 16. Jahrhundert und die Wahrnehmung der franz&#246;sischen Religionskriege in Italien und Deutschland, G&#246;ttingen 2006 (Schriftenreihe der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 74). URL:&#160;<a href="http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb00065702-6" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb00065702-6</a> [2021-08-12]
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ol id="InsertNote_NoteList" type="1">
<li id="InsertNoteID_0"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_0_marker1">^</a> A general history of the Thirty Years' War: Arndt, Der Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 2009.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_2"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_2_marker3">^</a> Messrelationen were news summaries of greater length.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_1"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_1_marker2">^</a> On the consciousness of a unitary event, see Burkhardt, Die b&#246;hmische Erhebung 2010, p. 48.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_3"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_3_marker4">^</a> Boys, London's News Press 2011, p. 44.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_5"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_5_marker6">^</a> Boys, London's News Press 2011, p. 45.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_7"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_7_marker8">^</a> Boys, London's News Press 2011, pp. 80, 85.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_9"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_9_marker10">^</a> For what follows, see St&#246;ber, Deutsche Pressegeschichte 2005, pp. 70f.; Wilke, Grundz&#252;ge 2008, pp. 52f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_4"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_4_marker5">^</a> Bingel, Das Theatrum Europaeum 1969.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_6"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_6_marker7">^</a> On the professionalization of news reporting, see Bauer, Zeitungen 2011, pp. 37&#8211;39.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_8"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_8_marker9">^</a> Schilling, Bildpublizistik 1990.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_10"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_10_marker11">^</a> Riha, Moritat 1979.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_12"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_12_marker13">^</a> Examples: Burkhardt, Der Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 1992, especially pp. 225&#8211;232; Tschopp, Heilsgeschichtliche Deutungsmuster 1991; Arndt, Der Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 1992, pp. 208&#8211;227.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_14"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_14_marker15">^</a> "Facts" that seem untrustworthy to postmodern eyes and ears, such as "reports" about witchcraft, "miracles" or strange heavenly phenomena, are at most only indirectly related to the war and can thus be ignored in this context.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_16"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_16_marker17">^</a> Schnurr, Religionskonflikt 2009, pp. 99f., 126&#8211;130.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_18"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_18_marker19">^</a> Iacobi Franci. Historicae Relationis Continuatio Trigesima Nona Oder die neun und dreissigste. Warhafftige Beschreibunge (...) bi&#223; auff vorstehende Franckfurter Herbstme&#223;/ dieses 1620. Jahrs. (...) Gedruckt zu Magdeburg bey Joachim B&#246;el/ Jm Jahr 1620, fol. A 3 r: "Au&#223; Prag/ vom 8. Martij. Diese Tag hat der Feind au&#223; Budweis Bellischitz eingenommen/ al&#223;dann vor Wittlingaw ankommen/ die Vorstadt daselbst in Brand gesteckt/ und angefangen die Stadt zu beschiessen/ die vnsern aber so 4. F&#228;hnlein zu Fu&#223; darin liegen/ haben sich dermassen/ gewert da&#223; er wieder abziehen m&#252;ssen. ... Denn 3. di&#223; ist Jhr May. erst von Pre&#223;law nach Lau&#223;nitz auffgebrochen/ vnd erwart man derselben inner 8. Tagen alhier/ al&#223;dann die Kindtauffen den 19. di&#223; gehalten/ hernacher Jhr May. Pers&#246;nlich sich ins Feld begeben werden ...." (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_20"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_20_marker21">^</a> Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continvatio 1618, p. 25: "nach dem Herr Oberster Burggraff neben Herrn Popel Creutzherrn vnn grossen Prior bey vnser lieben Frawen/ sich jhres Gefallens zimlich accomodirt/ entgegen Herr Schlabata oberster Landhoffrichter vnd Herr Schmisantzky etwas widerpart gehalten/ als haben die St&#228;ndt die ersten zween beyseits begert vnd hierzwischen Herrn Schlabata vnd Herrn Schmisansky neben dem Secreatrio M. Pilipps au&#223; der Cantzley durchs Fenster in Graben/ so ein grosse H&#246;he herunter/ werffen lassen/ sind aber alle drey durch Gottes Schickung beym leben blieben/" (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_22"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_22_marker23">^</a> Example: [Anonymous], Relatio Historica Posthvma 1622.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_24"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_24_marker25">^</a> Junkelmann, Tilly 2010, p. 77.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_26"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_26_marker27">^</a> Example: the surrender of the stronghold at Coburg to imperial troops in 1635: Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continvatio, Jacobi Franci Historische Beschreibung (...) bi&#223; auff Herbstmessz dieses 1635. Jahrs (...) Getruckt zu Franckfurt am Mayn/ durch Sigismundi Latomi S. Erben/ Jm Jahr M. DC. XXXV., pp. 7&#8211;11.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_28"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_28_marker29">^</a> Examples: the portrayal of the stronghold at Pilsen with besieging troops in: Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 252; the siege of Frankenthal in 1621, Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 310. In general see Wilke, Kriegsbilder 2009, pp. 405&#8211;430.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_30"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_30_marker31">^</a> Image in: Hartmann, Der Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 2010, p. 46.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_32"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_32_marker33">^</a> The siege of Breda in 1624: Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 363.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_34"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_34_marker35">^</a> A battle near Heilbronn, 6 May 1622: Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 350.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_36"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_36_marker37">^</a> The conquest of Friedland on 16 July 1623: Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 359.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_38"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_38_marker39">^</a> The siege of Hohentwiel in October 1641, Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 346.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_40"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_40_marker41">^</a> Relationis Historicae 1630, p. 22.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_42"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_42_marker43">^</a> Newer Vnpartheyischer Teutscher Celernvncivs. Oder Glaubw&#252;rdige Erzehlung (...) bi&#223; auff diese gegenwertige Fastenme&#223; 1638. Jahrs zugetragen. (...) Durch Caspar Ens der Historien Liebhabern in Truck geben. Mit etlichen Kupfferst&#252;cken. Getruckt zu C&#246;llen/ Bey Peter von Brachel vnder der g&#252;lden Wagen/ M.DC. LXXXVIII.(sic! gemeint ist: MDC XXXVIII.), fol. J 1 r sq.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_44"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_44_marker45">^</a> Newer Vnpartheyischer Teutscher Celernvncivs. Oder Glaubw&#252;rdige Erzehlung (...) bi&#223; auff diese gegenwertige Herbstme&#223; 1638. Jahrs zugetragen. (...) Durch Caspar Ens der Historien Liebhabern in Truck geben. Mit etlichen Kupfferst&#252;cken. Getruckt zu C&#246;llen/ bey Peter von Brachel vnter der g&#252;lden Wagen/ M.DC. XXX. VIII., p. 23.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_46"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_46_marker47">^</a> Weseloh, Die Schlacht 2012, pp. 138f.; for the song, see p. 139; for the meaning of the acronym, see p. 139, n. 11.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_48"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_48_marker49">^</a> For what follows, see Rystad, Kriegsnachrichten 1960, passim.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_50"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_50_marker51">^</a> Relationis Historicae 1634, pp. 95&#8211;97: "die zerstrewete Truppen widervmb zu samblen &#8230; dem Feind mit gantzer macht opponirt werden" (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_52"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_52_marker53">^</a> Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continvatio, Jacobi Franci Historische Beschreibung (...) bi&#223; auff Fastenmessz dieses 1635. Jahrs/ (...) Getruckt zu Franckfurt am Mayn/ durch Sigismundi Latomi S. Erben/ Jm Jahr M. DC. XXXV., p. 18: "Vnd obwol anf&#228;nglich auff der Keyserischen Seiten auch nit ein geringer Schade geschehen (...) so ist jedoch ein solches gegen der Schwedischen Niederlag vor fast nichts/ oder ja gantz gering zu achten" (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_54"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_54_marker55">^</a> For what follows, see Burkhardt, Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 1992, pp. 226f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_56"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_56_marker57">^</a> K&#246;rber, Deutschsprachige Flugschriften 2001, pp. 9f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_58"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_58_marker59">^</a> [Anonymous], Pommerischer Verlauff 1630, fol. A 2 r: "nicht mit geringem Verderben der armen Vnterthanen/ blo&#223; zu diesem vorgebendem Jntent/ h&#246;chsterwehnter Jhrer Keyserl. May. Feinden zu resistiren/ vnd die P&#228;sse zu verlegen" (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_60"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_60_marker61">^</a> [Anonymous], Nucleus Historicus Decennalis 1628, fol. F 1 v: "Den 17. Augusti/ Jst die grosse Niderlag zwischen Herrn General Tylli vnd K&#246;nig in Dennemarck bey dem Schlo&#223; Lutter vorgangen/ da der Dennischen &#252;ber 6000. darunter viel f&#252;rneme Obristen jhren Geist auffgeben/ also das diese Victori der auff dem Weisenberg erhaltenen vorzuziehen" (tranlsation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_62"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_62_marker63">^</a> For what follows, see K&#246;rber, Deutschsprachige Flugschriften 2001, pp. 3&#8211;5.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_64"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_64_marker65">^</a> On this point, see also Burkhardt, Erhebung 2010, p. 52.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_66"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_66_marker67">^</a> Burkhardt, Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 1992, pp. 128&#8211;130; Burkhardt, Erhebung 2010, p. 49.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_68"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_68_marker69">^</a> Burkhardt, Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 1992, p. 227. Broadside example: Harms, Illustrierte Flugbl&#228;tter 1983, pp. 98f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_70"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_70_marker71">^</a> Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 323.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_72"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_72_marker73">^</a> A handwritten entry on the broadside gives the solution to the rebus as "beggars" ("bettler").</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_74"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_74_marker75">^</a> Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 329: "Ey liebe sagt wo find ich doch / Den verlornen Pfaltzgrafen noch?" (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_76"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_76_marker77">^</a> For what follows, see K&#246;rber, Deutschsprachige Flugschriften 2001, pp. 4&#8211;8.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_78"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_78_marker79">^</a> K&#246;rber, Deutschsprachige Flugschriften 2001, p. 13.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_80"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_80_marker81">^</a> Tschopp, Heilsgeschichtliche Deutungsmuster 1991, pp. 91&#8211;260; Junkelmann, Tilly 2010, p. 63.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_82"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_82_marker83">^</a> Repgen, Drei&#223;igj&#228;hriger Krieg 1998, p. 305.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_84"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_84_marker85">^</a> Burkhardt, Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 1992, p. 228. Image example: Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 535.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_86"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_86_marker87">^</a> "Kayserliche Deduction/ vnd Vrsachen/ warvmb die beyde Hertzogen von Mecklenburg Jhrer F&#252;rstenthumb vnd Lande entsetzt worden.", in: Relationis Historicae Semestralis Continvatio, Jacobi Franci Historische Beschreibung (...) bi&#223; auff Fastenmessz dieses 1630. Jahrs/ (...)Getruckt zu Franckfurt am Mayn/ durch Sigismundi Latomi S. Erben/ im Jahr M. DC. XXX., pp. 27&#8211;41.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_88"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_88_marker89">^</a> Wintermonat, Continuatio XVI. 1634, pp. 53&#8211;56.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_90"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_90_marker91">^</a> These arguments are mentioned but ultimately rejected by Gerhard, Schreiben 1636, fol. A 3 v sq.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_92"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_92_marker93">^</a> See [Anonymous], Der Stetinischer Theologen Bedencken 1637, fol. A 4 r sq.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_94"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_94_marker95">^</a> Thr&#228;nen des Vaterlandes/ Anno 1636. In: Gryphius, Gedichte 1968, p. 7: "Doch schweig ich noch von dem/ was &#228;rger als der Tod/ Was grimmer denn die Pest/ und Glutt und Hungersnoth/ Das auch der Seelen Schatz/ so vilen abgezwungen" (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_96"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_96_marker97">^</a> On this point, based on the example of a medal artist active during the Thirty Years' War: Mau&#233;, Sebastian Dadler 2008, pp. 19f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_98"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_98_marker99">^</a> Fried, Wallensteins M&#252;nzen 2012, p. 191.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_100"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_100_marker101">^</a> Mau&#233;, Sebastian Dadler 2008, p. 18.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_102"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_102_marker103">^</a> Mau&#233;, Sebastian Dadler 2008, pp. 71f.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_104"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_104_marker105">^</a> Mau&#233;, Sebastian Dadler 2008, p. 71.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_106"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_106_marker107">^</a> Tschopp, Heilsgeschichtliche Deutungsmuster 1991, p. 66.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_108"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_108_marker109">^</a> Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 415; similar is Harms, Sammlung 1997, pp. 524&#8211;527.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_110"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_110_marker111">^</a> "Ein Fremder Arzet ist komen an. Der die plinten Recht Heillen kan.": Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 439.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_112"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_112_marker113">^</a> Junkelmann, Tilly 2010, p. 64; example: "Tyllische Confect-Gesegnung.": Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 417; "Newgececkte Confect-Tafel", Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 419; "S&#228;chsisch Confect", Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 421.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_114"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_114_marker115">^</a> Junkelmann, Tilly 2010, p. 64; Burkhardt, Drei&#223;igj&#228;hrige Krieg 1992, p. 229: "da&#223; sich Tilly noch am s&#228;chsischen Naschwerk, zu dem auch harte N&#252;sse zu geh&#246;ren pflegten, die Z&#228;hne ausbei&#223;en werde" (translation K. Grote-Baker).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_116"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_116_marker117">^</a> Junkelmann, Tilly 2010, p. 64; Lahne, Magdeburgs Zerst&#246;rung 1931, p. 203; "Tyllische Confect-Gesegnung", Harms, Sammlung 1997, p. 415.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_118"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_118_marker119">^</a> "Tyllische Victoria vor Magdeburg", as cited in Lahne, Magdeburgs Zerst&#246;rung 1931, p. 164.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_120"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_120_marker121">^</a> Lahne, Magdeburgs Zerst&#246;rung 1931, pp. 78, 194.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_122"><a href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-media/european-media-events/esther-beate-koerber-the-thirty-years-war-as-an-european-media-event#InsertNoteID_122_marker123">^</a> See Zwierlein, Discorso und Lex Dei 2006.</li>
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		<h3>ZitierempfehlungCitation</h3>
		
			K&#246;rber, Esther-Beate: The Thirty Years' War as a European Media Event, in:
			Europ&#228;ische Geschichte Online (EGO),
			hg. vom Leibniz-Institut f&#252;r Europ&#228;ische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz 
			European History Online (EGO),
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			2017-11-28.
			URL: <a id="primaryurl" href="">https://www.ieg-ego.eu/koerbere-2015-en</a>
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