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		<title>Ossian, the European National Epic (1760-1810) &#8212; EGO </title>
	<meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="DC.Title" content="Ossian, the European National Epic (1760-1810)"><meta name="DC.Source" content="EGO(http://www.ieg-ego.eu)"><meta name="DC.Date.Issued" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CTDF" content="2015-11-09"><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="WorldCathttp://www.worldcat.org/oclc/928392539"><meta name="DC.Rights" content="CC by-nc-nd 3.0 Germany - Attribution, Noncommercial, No Derivative Works"><meta name="DC.Description" content="The Poems of Ossian are a unique phenomenon in European literary history. They have been referred to as a 'pseudotranslation' and effectively discarded from the canon, to which they undoubtedly belonged to for a hundred years, yet their monumental influence on literature, visual art and music is undeniable. The poems were certainly not a translation of one single text but an editoral construct which on its own shook the literary system of the late 18th century to its foundations and helped usher in Romantic notions of poetry, in addition to turning the focus definitely to the native productions of the people in each country or area. The number of translations and imitations of several degrees underlines the huge creative impulse of the poems, which can be seen as a major paradigm shift in the outlook of what is called high culture literature."><meta name="DC.Identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="urn:nbn:de:0159-2015103003"><meta name="DC.Type" content="Text" scheme="DCMIType"><meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" scheme="IMT"><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="IEG(http://www.ieg-mainz.de)"><meta name="generator" content="Plone - http://plone.com"></head>
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			<div id="content" class="grid_5">
	<h1>Ossian, the European National Epic (1760-1810)</h1>
	<div class="documentByLine" id="document-byline">
 
			von 
			by 
 Gauti Kristmannsson
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				2015-11-09
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 	Ossian
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 The Poems of Ossian are a unique phenomenon in European literary history. They have been referred to as a "pseudotranslation" and effectively discarded from the canon, to which they undoubtedly belonged to for a hundred years, yet their monumental influence on literature, visual art and music is undeniable. The poems were certainly not a translation of one single text but an editoral construct which on its own shook the literary system of the late 18th century to its foundations and helped usher in Romantic notions of poetry, in addition to turning the focus definitely to the native productions of the people in each country or area. The number of translations and imitations of several degrees underlines the huge creative impulse of the poems, which can be seen as a major paradigm shift in the outlook of what is called high culture literature.
 
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 <h2>"The Poems of Ossian" and the New National Epic</h2>
When <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/100201047" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="James Macpherson (1736&#8211;1796)">James Macpherson (1736&#8211;1796)</a> published his small volume, Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and translated from the Galic or Erse Language<a href="#InsertNoteID_0">1</a> <a data-class="external-link" href="https://archive.org/details/fragmentsancien00fraggoog" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fragments of ancient poetry, collected in the highlands of Scotland and tr. from the Galic or Erse language">[<img alt="Fragments of Ancient Poetry, Collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and Translated from the Galic or Erse Language. Edinburgh: Printed for G. Hamilton and J. Balfour. MDCCLX. Cover page of the first edition. Source: http://demo.ossianonline.org/texts/1/fragments-of-ancient-poetry. Facsimile images of print edition of Ossian are courtesy of the National Library of Scotland, and are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.5 UK: Scotland License. " class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/fragments-of-ancient-poetry-collected-in-the-highlands-of-scotland-1760/@@images/image/thumb" title="Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the Highlands of Scotland 1760">]</a> in the summer of 1760 he may have had a young man's hopes of becoming known as a man of letters, at least in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4053233-1">Scotland</a>. Nothing could have been more wrong, since he became famous, infamous, lionised and detested in the course of a few years, and not only in his own country, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4022153-2">Great Britain</a>, but all over <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4015701-5">Europe</a> and beyond. Moreover, his financially rewarding rise from poor schoolteacher in the Highlands of Scotland to intellectual, servant of the empire and MP is more reminiscent of a modern celebrity than the career of a "man of letters" in the 18th century.<a href="#InsertNoteID_1">2</a>
The success of his poems was much greater and enduring, however. After the publication of the Fragments, which paved the way for romanticist, lyrical poetry, the Edinburgh elite composed of figures such as <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/49231791" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Adam Smith (1723&#8211;1790)">Adam Smith (1723&#8211;1790)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/49226972" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="David Hume (1711&#8211;1776)">David Hume (1711&#8211;1776)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/54309971" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Hugh Blair (1718&#8211;1800)">Hugh Blair (1718&#8211;1800)</a> and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/49279367" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Adam Ferguson (1723&#8211;1816)">Adam Ferguson (1723&#8211;1816)</a> became excited about the possible existence of an epic from the Scottish Highlands. After funds had been raised, the young man went into the country where he collected folk poetry as well as manuscripts and transcribed and translated oral poetry. After the journey, he worked on his translation under the supervision of Hugh Blair, among others. Fingal, the first epic, was published in late 1761 and another edition followed in early 1762.<a href="#InsertNoteID_2">3</a> In the following year, the second epic Temora<a href="#InsertNoteID_3">4</a> was published, with new full editions appearing in 1765 and 1773).
The poems caused an instant controversy in the British Isles which was of a twofold nature. The first outcry came from Irish intellectuals who accused Macpherson of cultural theft since the poems, on which the epic was based, had been recited and written in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027667-3">Ireland</a> for generations.<a href="#InsertNoteID_4">5</a> South of the border, the response was much more furious, undoubtedly because of the importance of a grand national epic for Scotland at a time when the Scottish Lord <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/5724938" rel="noopener" target="_blank">John Stuart of Bute (1713&#8211;1792)</a> was at the helm of government and anti-Scottish feeling was widespread in the capital.<a href="#InsertNoteID_5">6</a> There, the accusation was that the translation was a hoax and no such epic had ever existed.<a href="#InsertNoteID_6">7</a> The controversy simmered on for years and even led to a personal feud between Macpherson and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7406725" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Samuel Johnson (1709&#8211;1784)">Samuel Johnson (1709&#8211;1784)</a>, which remains an anecdote gleefully recounted by in many an encyclopaedia article.<a href="#InsertNoteID_7">8</a>
This view has come to dominate the literary and scholarly discourse on the subject of Macpherson's works and has since overshadowed all debates on the phenomenon linked with Ossian and its influence on European literature, which in the latter part of the 18th and well into the 19th century is probably second only to <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/96994048" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="William Shakespeare (1564&#8211;1616)">William Shakespeare (1564&#8211;1616)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/william-shakespeare-156420131616-en" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="William Shakespeare (1564&#8211;1616)">[<img alt="William Shakespeare (1564&#8211;1616) IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/anglophilie-bilderordner/william-shakespeare-156420131616-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="William Shakespeare (1564&#8211;1616) IMG">]</a> . A prime example is the work of <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95187266" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Johann Gottfried Herder (1744&#8211;1803)">Johann Gottfried Herder (1744&#8211;1803)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/johann-gottfried-herder-174420131803-en" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Johann Gottfried Herder (1744&#8211;1803)">[<img alt="Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/europa-kulturelle-referenz-bilderordner/johann-gottfried-herder-1744-1803-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) IMG">]</a>, a major philosopher of national literature. He was absolutely taken by The Poems of Ossian and convinced these works held the key to a new vision of popular poetry in the North.<a href="#InsertNoteID_8">9</a> His famous Von deutscher Art und Kunst opens with an essay on ancient poetry in which he also mentions Ossian and the Eddic poetry of the North<a href="#InsertNoteID_9">10</a> while the next essay is about <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/anglophilia/sophie-chiari-shakespeare" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>.<a href="#InsertNoteID_10">11</a> This slim volume, with a contribution from the young <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/24602065" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749&#8211;1832)">Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749&#8211;1832)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/johann-wolfgang-goethe-in-der-campagna-1787" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Johann Wolfgang Goethe in the Campagna 1787 ">[<img alt="Johann Wolfgang Goethe in der Campagna 1787 IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/geschichte-des-tourismus/johann-wolfgang-goethe-174920131832-in-der-campagna-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Johann Wolfgang Goethe in der Campagna 1787 IMG">]</a> among others,<a href="#InsertNoteID_11">12</a> is often seen as the manifesto of the Sturm und Drang period and remained influential well into the 19th century.
Herder's fascination with Ossian was above all based on the fact that Macpherson had collected the material for the epics from folk tradition and then used it to construct his own version of an epic to the best of his ability, in line with what was considered to be textual criticism at the time.<a href="#InsertNoteID_12">13</a> That Macpherson used sources which had long been in existence for his epics has been shown many times, first in the Report of the Committee of the Highland Society<a href="#InsertNoteID_13">14</a> in 1805<a data-class="external-link" href="http://deriv.nls.uk/dcn17/7652/76520094.17.jpg" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="http://deriv.nls.uk/dcn17/7652/76520094.17.jpg">[<img alt="Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland, appointed to inquire into the nature and authenticity of the poems of Ossian. Drawn up, according to the directions of the Committee, by Henry Mackenzie. Edinburgh: for Archibald Constable &amp; Co. and Longman, Hurst, Reese &amp; Orme, London. 1805. Source: National Library of Scotland, Eraly Gaelic Book Collections, http://digital.nls.uk/76520092. Creative Commons - Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.5 UK: Scotland" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/report-of-the-committee-1805/@@images/image/thumb" title="Report of the Committee 1805">]</a>. In 1952 <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/92727060" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Derick Thomson (1921&#8211;2012)">Derick Thomson (1921&#8211;2012)</a> published his The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian" in which he was still able to trace source material related to the Ossianic poems published some 200 years earlier. Recent scholarship has also highlighted that Macpherson worked from a variety of sources, oral and written.<a href="#InsertNoteID_14">15</a>
Herder and Goethe may have been the pioneers in reception of Ossian in Europe, in the sense that they drew inspiration from it almost instantly (Herder even prior to seeing the English original version). Goethe used the Songs of Selma in his <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/de/threads/modelle-und-stereotypen/germanophilie-und-germanophobie/karol-sauerland-wertherfieber" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Wertherfieber">Die Leiden des jungen Werthers</a><a href="#InsertNoteID_15">16</a> and for Herder, Ossian was the chief inspiration for his highly influential Volkslieder which later were called Stimmen der V&#246;lker in Liedern. Both of them even tried to translate directly from the Gaelic with the aid of a dictionary.<a href="#InsertNoteID_16">17</a>
<h2>Ossian in Literature: Translation and Imitation</h2>
It is sometimes said that imitation is the sincerest form of flattery. The response in the British Isles was, hostility in many quarters notwithstanding, also positive in parts. Many contemporaries, even among those who condemned The Poems of Ossian, started collecting and editing folk poetry themselves. The result was a flurry of publications in Ireland, <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4064435-2">Wales</a> and indeed <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4014770-8">England</a>, where bishop <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/68971787" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas Percy (1729&#8211;1811)">Thomas Percy (1729&#8211;1811)</a> published his <a data-class="external-link" href="http://archive.org/details/fivepiecesrunic00norwgoog" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Five pieces of runic poetry translated from the islandic language">Five Pieces of Runic Poetry</a> in 1763. To this translation of Eddic poetry Percy wrote a remarkable preface, calling the Nordic skalds the ancestors of the British minstrels.<a href="#InsertNoteID_17">18</a> Two years later he published a collection of British ballads under the title Reliques of Ancient English Poetry,<a href="#InsertNoteID_18">19</a> which confirmed that Macpherson's works had effectually helped to change the perspective on the folk ballad and poetry tradition. Formerly an element of "low" culture, it had now become a feature of "high" culture. This trend was established all over Europe within the course of the following century and produced epics, collections of folk poetry, folk tales and other historical material largely ignored by the elites hitherto.
<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/threads/backgrounds/translation/mary-snell-hornby-juergen-f-schopp-translation" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Translation">Translation</a> and criticism of the Poems of Ossian indeed spread out in a sort of transnational wildfire throughout Europe in the latter part of the 18th century and beyond. According to the Timeline of Ossian's European Reception by Paul Barnaby the first French translation from the Fragments appeared already in 1760, done by <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/12316007" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727&#8211;1781)">Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727&#8211;1781)</a>. Immediately the year after <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/89808442" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard (ca. 1734&#8211;1817)">Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Suard (ca. 1734&#8211;1817)</a> and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/54146831" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Denis Diderot (1713&#8211;1784)">Denis Diderot (1713&#8211;1784)</a> followed suit. This was only the beginning of a long series of translations and critical debates on Ossian in Europe. The pace of translation picked up in the following years after the epics had been published. It may be surmised from the voluminous reception, through direct translation, critical debate and also creative reception, that these poems had touched a raw nerve among European intellectuals.
The first <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4042203-3">Dutch</a> translation by <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/48129185" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Egbert Buys (1725&#8211;1769)">Egbert Buys (1725&#8211;1769)</a> appeared 1762 as well as a first anonymous one in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/2035457-5">German</a>. <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/14833816" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Melchiorre Cesarotti (1730&#8211;1808)">Melchiorre Cesarotti (1730&#8211;1808)</a> published his influential <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4027833-5">Italian</a> translation of Fingal in 1763,<a href="#InsertNoteID_19">20</a> only a year after it appeared in English. The same year <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95156657" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Rudolf Erich Raspe (1736&#8211;1794)">Rudolf Erich Raspe (1736&#8211;1794)</a> published a few extracts from it in German. <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4077258-5">Swedish</a> translations of selections from the poems by <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/22525525" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Johan Gothenius (1721&#8211;1809)">Johan Gothenius (1721&#8211;1809)</a> appeared in a journal 1765&#8211;1766<a href="#_msocom_18"></a> and in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4043271-3">Austria</a><a href="#InsertNoteID_20">21</a>,&#160;<a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/32028043" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Michael Denis (1729&#8211;1800)">Michael Denis (1729&#8211;1800)</a> was the first to publish a full translation of the works of Ossian, and in hexameter, too. By doing so, the alignment with the Homeric epics became obvious. The number of languages into which Macpherson's works were translated continued to grow throughout the 19th century and is indeed still growing. Few texts in the English language have been translated more often and as widely than The Poems of Ossian.<a href="#InsertNoteID_21">22</a>
Part of the poems' appeal is the fact that they were received by most intellectuals and poets in Europe as a kind of prototype or model for their own budding national literatures at the time. This was certainly Herder's point of view and indeed of many others who translated, commented or rewrote Ossianic material. As a literary "earthquake" Macpherson's works positively shook the foundations of the old classical literary system and marked a paradigm shift by offering a viable alternative for the "new" nations north of the Alps.<a href="#InsertNoteID_22">23</a>
<h2>Intermedial influences: Ossian in Visual Art</h2>
The Poems of Ossian also influenced works of visual artists and composers of music. The transnational circulation and impact of The Poems of Ossian was not limited to the field of literature but inspired artists working in other media, too. This "translation" into other art forms is perhaps the best argument for counting the poems among the realm of "world literature" (Weltliteratur).<a href="#InsertNoteID_23">24</a>
In the visual arts, several important artists have applied Ossianic themes. Not only in Britain, but also in <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4010877-6">Denmark</a>, Germany, and <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4018145-5">France</a>. The British creative reception (including Ireland) was in accordance with the discourse of the day. The Scotsman <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/9376805" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Alexander Runciman (1736-1786)">Alexander Runciman (1736-1786)</a>, who chose literary and mythological subjects very much en vogue at the time, rendered the Scottish national hero appropriately in drawings and in a ceiling painting in Penicuik House,&#160;<a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/1028061-3">Edinburgh</a>, which was destroyed by fire in 1899.
<a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/36926685" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="James Barry (1741&#8211;1806)">James Barry (1741&#8211;1806)</a> also interpreted Ossian as a national bard in his series The Progress of Human Knowledge and Culture, but since he was Irish, the bard to him was also an Irishman.<a href="#InsertNoteID_24">25</a> Furthermore he sets <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/224924963" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Homer (ca. 8th century BC)">Homer (ca. 8th century BC)</a> and Ossian up as equals, a notion propagated by many of the greatest authors and thinkers in the latter part of the 18th century.<a href="#InsertNoteID_25">26</a> Indeed, Ossian became a transnational figure by providing two parts of the United Kingdom with a national bard comparable with the greatest of them all. Other artists in Britain, either British or foreigners living there, also took up Ossianic topics, for example <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95148968" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Angelika Kauffmann (1741&#8211;1807)">Angelika Kauffmann (1741&#8211;1807)</a>, and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/34630247" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John Sell Cotman (1782&#8211;1842)">John Sell Cotman (1782&#8211;1842)</a>.<a href="#InsertNoteID_26">27</a> On the whole, however, Ossian did not have a major impact on British art in the second half of the 18th century, owing to the controversy which surrounded the poems.<a href="#InsertNoteID_27">28</a>
Nevertheless, painters from other countries were fascinated by the image of the northern bard, but perhaps for different reasons. In the northern parts of Europe Ossian became the symbol for a new national subject. The Danish artist <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/10020076" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Nicolai Abraham Abildgaard (1743&#8211;1809)">Nicolai Abraham Abildgaard (1743&#8211;1809)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/fingal-sees-the-ghosts-of-his-forefathers-by-moonlight-ca.-1782" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fingal Sees the Ghosts of his Forefathers by Moonlight, ca. 1782">[<img alt="Nicolai Abildgaard (1743&#8211;1809): Fingal Sees the Ghosts of his Forefathers by Moonlight, ca. 1782, 60.4 x 72.2 x 5.1 cm, oil on canvas, source: Statens Museum for Kunst / National Gallery of Denmark, KMS3986, http://www.smk.dk/en/explore-the-art/search-smk/#/detail/KMS3986. Public Domain." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/fingal-sees-the-ghosts-of-his-forefathers-by-moonlight-ca.-1782/@@images/image/thumb" title="Fingal Sees the Ghosts of his Forefathers by Moonlight, ca. 1782">]</a>, who, like many of his contemporaries, merged influences of Neo-classicism and Romanticism in his work, was very fond of both classical and Nordic literary motifs. Ossian played a major part in his work, and his Ossian Singing his Swan Song<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/ossian-1787-ossians-swan-song" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title=" Ossian 1787 (Ossian's Swan Song) "><img alt="J.F. Clemens (1748&#8211;1831), after Nicolai Abildgaard (1743&#8211;1809): Ossian, 1787, 247 x 196 mm, etching and engraving, source: Statens Museum for Kunst / National Gallery of Denmark, KKSgb5959, http://www.smk.dk/en/explore-the-art/search-smk/#/detail/KKSgb5959. Public Domain." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/ossian-1787/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ossian 1787"></a> has almost become the defining image of the blind bard. One of Abildgaard's students, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/54420647" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Asmus Jacob Carstens (1754&#8211;1798)">Asmus Jacob Carstens (1754&#8211;1798)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/fingals-battle-with-the-spirit-of-loda-1797" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fingal's Battle with the Spirit of Loda 1797 ">[<img alt="Nicolai Abildgaard (1743&#8211;1809): Fingal Sees the Ghosts of his Forefathers by Moonlight, ca. 1782, 60.4 x 72.2 x 5.1 cm, oil on canvas, source: Statens Museum for Kunst / National Gallery of Denmark, KMS3986, http://www.smk.dk/en/explore-the-art/search-smk/#/detail/KMS3986. Public Domain." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/fingals-battle-with-the-spirit-of-loda-1797/@@images/image/thumb" title="Fingal's Battle with the Spirit of Loda 1797">]</a>, was inspired by Ossian as well, as were many other Danish artists.<a href="#InsertNoteID_28">29</a>
Just as the literary reception in Germany, or rather the German speaking part of Europe, and France was lively for decades after the publication of The Poems of Ossian, the same was true for the visual arts.<a href="#InsertNoteID_29">30</a> In Germany <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/39426944" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Philipp Otto Runge (1777&#8211;1810)">Philipp Otto Runge (1777&#8211;1810)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/philipp-otto-runge-ossian-1805" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title=" Philipp Otto Runge: Ossian, 1805 ">[<img alt="Philipp Otto Runge (1777&#8211;1810): Ossian, 1805, 39.8 &#215; 24 cm, pen and ink / pencil, source: http://www.zeno.org - Contumax GmbH &amp; Co. KG. http://www.zeno.org/Kunstwerke/B/Runge,+Philipp+Otto%3A+Ossian. Public Domain. " class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/runge-ossian-1805/@@images/image/thumb" title="Runge, Ossian 1805">]</a> may be the best known artist who used Ossian as an inspiration, but the Austrian <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/64802393" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Anton Koch (1768&#8211;1839)">Joseph Anton Koch (1768&#8211;1839)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/fingal-befreit-conbana" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title=" Fingal befreit Conbana ">[<img alt="Joseph Anton Koch (1768&#8211;1839): Fingal befreit Conbana (Fingal sets Conbana free), ca. 18./19. Century, 25.2 &#215; 19.4 cm, etching, source: http://www.zeno.org - Contumax GmbH &amp; Co. KG. http://www.zeno.org/Kunstwerke/B/Koch,+Joseph+Anton%3A+Darstellung+zu+Ossian%3A+Fingal+befreit+Conbana. Public Domain." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/fingal-befreit-conbana/@@images/image/thumb" title="Fingal befreit Conbana">]</a> was no less active. Furthermore <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/12145857793223021180" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Caspar David Friedrich (1774&#8211;1840)">Caspar David Friedrich (1774&#8211;1840)</a> and the Englishman <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/100900492" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775&#8211;1851)">Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775&#8211;1851)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/staffa-fingals-cave-1831-1832" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775&#8211;1851), Staffa, Fingal's Cave, 1831/1832"><img alt="Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775&#8211;1851): Staffa, Fingal's Cave, 1831/1832, 90.8 x 121.3 cm, oil on canvas, source: Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection, B1978.43.14, http://collections.britishart.yale.edu/vufind/Record/1669251. Public Domain." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/staffa-fingals-cave-1831-1832/@@images/image/thumb" title="Staffa, Fingal's Cave 1831/1832"></a> show the influence of the supposedly typical Ossianic landscape with its melancholy fog and strange light effects.<a href="#InsertNoteID_30">31</a> Although Friedrich never painted any actual figures from Macpherson's works, he was regarded by contemporaries as one of the "leading Ossianists in painting" because of the atmosphere in his work.<a href="#InsertNoteID_31">32</a>
In France The Poems of Ossian were a favourite text of <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/106964661" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Napoleon Bonaparte (1769&#8211;1821)">Napoleon Bonaparte (1769&#8211;1821)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/test-napoleon" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title=" Napoleon Bonaparte (1769&#8211;1821) ">[<img alt="Napoleon Bonaparte (1769&#8211;1821) IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/rev.-and-napoleonic-wars-bilderordner/napoleon-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Napoleon Bonaparte (1769&#8211;1821) IMG">]</a> and commissions for works from Ossian at the time gave the subject "imperial support". <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/27073449" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roucy-Trioson (1767&#8211;1824)">Anne-Louis Girodet de Roucy-Trioson (1767&#8211;1824)</a> painted his famous Ossian Receiving the Ghosts of the French Heroes<a data-class="external-link" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anne-Louis_Girodet_De_Roucy-Trioson_-_Ossian_Receiving_the_Ghosts_of_French_Heroes_-_WGA09512.jpg" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title=" Ossian Receiving the Ghosts of French Heroes "><img alt="Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson (1767&#8211;1824): Ossian Receiving the Ghosts of French Heroes, 1802, 192 x 184 cm, oil on canvas, source: Mus&#233;e national du Ch&#226;teau de Malmaison / Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anne-Louis_Girodet_De_Roucy-Trioson_-_Ossian_Receiving_the_Ghosts_of_French_Heroes_-_WGA09512.jpg. " class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/ossian-receiving-the-ghosts-of-french-heroes/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ossian Receiving the Ghosts of French Heroes"></a> at the beginning of the 19th century, a work which was destined for one of Napoleon's residences, the Ch&#226;teau Malmaison. This highly nationalistic work, with French fallen heroes almost embracing Ossian, Fingal and other characters from the poems, highlights once more in how far the Celtic bard could be used to foster the subjective nationalism of another culture. The two other most famous French painters inspired by Ossian were <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/46776048" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fran&#231;ois-Pascal-Simon G&#233;rard (1770&#8211;1837)">Fran&#231;ois-Pascal-Simon G&#233;rard (1770&#8211;1837)</a><a data-class="external-link" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard_-_Ossian.jpg" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fran&#231;ois G&#233;rard - Ossian">[<img alt="Fran&#231;ois G&#233;rard (1770&#8211;1837): Ossian on the Bank of the Lora, Invoking the Gods to the Strains of a Harp (Ossian &#233;voque les fant&#244;mes au son de la harpe sur les bords du Lora), ca. 18./19. century, 184.5 &#215; 194.5 cm, oil on canvas. Source: Kunsthalle Hamburg / Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard_-_Ossian.jpg. " class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/ossian-on-the-bank-of-the-lora/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ossian on the Bank of the Lora">]</a> and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/76327826" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780&#8211;1867)">Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780&#8211;1867)</a>. The former's painting was also commissioned for Malmaison, whereas Ingres's The Dream of Ossian<a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/ossian2019s-dream-1813" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ossian&#8217;s Dream 1813"><img alt="Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780&#8211;1867): Ossian&#8217;s Dream (Le Songe d'Ossian), 1813, 348 &#215; 275 cm, oil on canvas, Mus&#233;e Ingres, Montauban, source: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Via Wikimedia Commons, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jean_Auguste_Dominique_Ingres_009.jpg. Public Domain." class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/ossian2019s-dream-1813/@@images/image/thumb" title="Ossian&#8217;s Dream 1813"></a> was especially painted to embellish Napoleon's quarters in Rome.<a href="#InsertNoteID_32">33</a>
In Scottish contemporary art Ossian has lately resurfaced. One reason for this burgeoning interest in Macpherson's works may be found in a newly established political context in Great Britain. Since the late 1990s devolution has begun changing the British political landscape and subsequently left its mark on the arts, too. The sculptor <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/15949129" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Alexander Stoddart (born 1959)">Alexander Stoddart (born 1959)</a> has created a "heroic scale" bust of Ossian and his version of "Ossian singing" on a smaller scale. The art photographer <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/96406918" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Calum Colvin (born 1961)">Calum Colvin (born 1961)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/calum-colvin-ossian-2002" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Calum Colvin, Ossian 2002 ">[<img alt='Calum Colvin (b. 1961): Three photographs from the series "Ossian: Fragments of Ancient Poetry", 2002. Painted sculptures, photographed and printed on canvas. By kind permission of the artist. http://calumcolvin.com/ &#169; Calum Colvin' class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/ossian-bilderordner/calum-colvin-ossian-2002/@@images/image/thumb" title="Calum Colvin, Ossian 2002">]</a> has created a series of portraits based on an etching by Runciman which was exhibited at the Scottish National Portrait Gallery from 2002 to 2003.<a href="#InsertNoteID_33">34</a> Despite having been dismissed from the academic literary canon, Ossian appears to play an important role again in what might be perceived as a new Scottish search for cultural identity. As <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/299684912" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Sebastian Mitchell (born 1959)">Sebastian Mitchell (born 1959)</a> puts it: "... we have just lived through the most significant period of Ossianic visual interpretation since the early nineteenth century&#8230;"<a href="#InsertNoteID_34">35</a>
<h2>Ossian in Music</h2>
While The Poems of Ossian had a great impact on the visual arts, in particular during the Romantic period, the influence on European (and American) musical composers appears to be even greater and of a much longer duration. <a href="#InsertNoteID_35">36</a> Both well-known and lesser-known composers drew inspiration from Macpherson's works. <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29719275" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Franz Schubert (1797&#8211;1828)">Franz Schubert (1797&#8211;1828)</a> set several passages to music; <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/2665666" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809&#8211;1847)">Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809&#8211;1847)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/felix-mendelssohn-bartholdy-180920131847" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809&#8211;1847)">[<img alt="Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809&#8211;1847) IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/musikalischer-kulturtransfer-von-leipzig-nach-kopenhagen-bilderordner/felix-mendelssohn-bartholdy-180920131847-img/@@images/image/thumb" title="Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (1809&#8211;1847) IMG">]</a> was inspired by a visit to Fingal's Cave on Staffa to write his celebrated overture Die Hebriden (The Hebrides, 1830). <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/9945810" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Jean-Fran&#231;ois Le Sueur (1760&#8211;1837)</a> wrote the most important opera based on Ossian (Ossian, ou Les bardes, 1804), much to the delight of Napoleon.<a href="#InsertNoteID_36">37</a> The Danish <a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/de/threads/modelle-und-stereotypen/germanophilie-und-germanophobie/deutsche-musik-in-europa/yvonne-wasserloos-niels-wilhelm-gade-1817-1890" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817-1890)">composer</a> <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/54332446" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817&#8211;1890)">Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817&#8211;1890)</a><a data-class="internal-link" href="https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/models-and-stereotypes/en/mediainfo/niels-wilhelm-gade-181720131890" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817&#8211;1890) ">[<img alt="Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817&#8211;1890) IMG" class="image-inline" src="./illustrationen/musikalischer-kulturtransfer-von-leipzig-nach-kopenhagen-bilderordner/gade/@@images/image/thumb" title="Niels Wilhelm Gade (1817&#8211;1890) IMG">]</a> made his name with the overture Efterklange af Ossian (1840), a work which became part of the Danish national heritage.<a href="#InsertNoteID_37">38</a> The Frenchman <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29798669" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fran&#231;ois-Hippolyte Barth&#233;lemon (1741&#8211;1808)">Fran&#231;ois-Hippolyte Barth&#233;lemon (1741&#8211;1808)</a>, who lived in England, drew on Ossian for Oithona, a "dramatic poem" in three acts (1768).<a href="#InsertNoteID_38">39</a> Among the many other musicians to adapt the material, some composed only one small piece, others whole ballets and operas. Composers such as <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95146280" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Haydn (1732&#8211;1809)">Joseph Haydn (1732&#8211;1809)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/74037336" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Gaetano Donizetti (1797&#8211;1848)">Gaetano Donizetti (1797&#8211;1848)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/48303083" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John Wall Callcott (1766&#8211;1821)">John Wall Callcott (1766&#8211;1821)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7573295" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Johannes Brahms (1833&#8211;1897)">Johannes Brahms (1833&#8211;1897)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/10032551" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Georges Bizet (1838&#8211;1875)">Georges Bizet (1838&#8211;1875)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7575200" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Camille Saint-Sa&#235;ns (1835&#8211;1921)">Camille Saint-Sa&#235;ns (1835&#8211;1921)</a> and even <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/12492826" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Arnold Sch&#246;nberg (1874&#8211;1951)">Arnold Sch&#246;nberg (1874&#8211;1951)</a> belong to the illustrious circle of artists inspired by Ossian. Apparently these intermedial approaches show how the bard took on a life of his own within the musical world. The Poems of Ossian proved not only to be transnational but also transdisciplinary.
<h2>The Ossianic Paradigm Shift</h2>
Macpherson's works thus led to a paradigm shift in European literature and, what is more important, this effect was achieved by doing exactly what Macpherson was most criticised for: by combining the gathered material into the epic form. The theoretical basis to his work might have been laid by the 18th-century scholar, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/3399581" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Thomas Blackwell (1701&#8211;1757)">Thomas Blackwell (1701&#8211;1757)</a> from <a itemprop="url" class="external-geo-link" data-class="external-geo-link" href="http://d-nb.info/gnd/4079606-1">Aberdeen</a>, whose important work An Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer went into four editions between 1735 and 1761 in Britain alone.<a href="#InsertNoteID_39">40</a> Blackwell's work opens with a question:
<blockquote>By what Fate or Disposition of things it has happened, that None have equalled [Homer] in Epic-poetry for two thousand seven hundred Years, the Time since he wrote; Nor any that we know, ever surpassed him before.<a href="#InsertNoteID_40">41</a></blockquote>
Blackwell's answer to his "research question" is centred on the "Progression of Manners", a combination of three factors: "Thus we find that the Fortunes, the Manners, and the Language of a People are all linked together, and necessarily influence one another".<a href="#InsertNoteID_41">42</a>
This meant that the Homeric epics consisted of a combination of influences and sources which were brought together in one work by one man. Blackwell's theories were given a new form in the so-called Homeric question of <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/45080401" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Friedrich August Wolf (1759&#8211;1824)">Friedrich August Wolf (1759&#8211;1824)</a> in his Prolegomena ad Homerum (1795) that undoubtedly was also related to the previous three decades of Ossianic controversy.<a href="#InsertNoteID_42">43</a> <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/96994450" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Friedrich von Schiller (1759&#8211;1805)">Friedrich von Schiller (1759&#8211;1805)</a> and Goethe saw it that way and asked Herder to contribute an essay to their journal Die Horen, titled Homer und Ossian. <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/89204033" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Anne Louise Germaine de Sta&#235;l-Holstein (1766&#8211;1817)">Anne Louise Germaine de Sta&#235;l-Holstein (1766&#8211;1817)</a> is sometimes cited as being the first to use the phrase "Homer of the North", although this has been disputed.<a href="#InsertNoteID_43">44</a>
The continous comparison of Ossian with Homer, which began with Hugh Blair's influential A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian (1763), aims perhaps at more than mere questions of greatness.<a href="#InsertNoteID_44">45</a> The causes for this juxtaposition may also be found in the nature of the epic itself. Keeping the definition of "national epic" in mind, Macpherson's construction proved to be so influential because it effectually took the epic tradition in the West "back to basics". Usually national epics are defined as renderings of traditional epics which have their origins in oral tradition; Homer is always the case in point when referring to an epic passed on orally. <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/8194433" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Virgil (70&#8211;19 BC)">Virgil's (70&#8211;19 BC)</a> Aeneid and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/100170015" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Edmund Spenser (ca. 1552&#8211;1599)">Edmund Spenser's (ca. 1552&#8211;1599)</a> The Faerie Queene are some examples from the large number of authors who wrote so-called "national epics".
Macpherson, however, collected oral and written sources to construct his version of a national epic. In a sense, it was an attempt to create a traditional epic which instantly was defined as a "national epic". As an effect intellectuals all over Europe began to perceive their own traditions in a different light. They ceased imitating the classical models and began using sources in their own countries or areas outside the classical sphere. In Britain itself the Welshman <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/57413633" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Evan Evans (1731&#8211;1788)">Evan Evans (1731&#8211;1788)</a> published his Some Specimens of the Poetry of the Antient Welsh Bards (1764); <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/296453360" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charles Henry Wilson (ca. 1757&#8211;1808)">Charles Henry Wilson (ca. 1757&#8211;1808)</a> presented Select Irish Poems Translated (1782) and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7731550" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Charlotte Brooke (ca. 1740&#8211;1793)">Charlotte Brooke (ca. 1740&#8211;1793)</a> her Reliques of Ancient Irish Poetry (1789; with Thomas Percy's encouragement), to name just a few. Antiquaries and poets such as <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/19808411" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Joseph Ritson (1752&#8211;1803)">Joseph Ritson (1752&#8211;1803)</a>, <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/12358699" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="John Pinkerton (1758&#8211;1826)">John Pinkerton (1758&#8211;1826)</a> and <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/95207079" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Walter Scott (1771&#8211;1832)">Walter Scott (1771&#8211;1832)</a> collected and published ballads and folk songs. Extensive explanatory paratexts were added in an attempt to support the construction of a unique national heritage. In the 19th century national epics were simply written with that aim in mind. The Finnish national epic Kalevala by <a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/7393523" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Elias L&#246;nnrot (1802&#8211;1884)">Elias L&#246;nnrot (1802&#8211;1884)</a> is perhaps the most important work in this vein, since L&#246;nnrot used largely the same means of collecting sources as Macpherson did.
As this overview shows, the much-derided comparison of Homer and Ossian is perhaps not as absurd as some modern commentators like to claim. Although scholars and poets at the time had published "native" sources and used them for their own creations, as had happened often before, these works were not "ennobled" by the epic form which Macpherson gave the ballads and folk poetry of his people. He literally translated a specific culture to the "higher sphere" of classical culture. That Macpherson's works were removed from the canon of the most important works of European, and, indeed, world literature, might thus be regarded as a matter of nationalist narrow-mindedness and dogmatic notions on translation and textual criticism.
<a data-class="external-link" href="http://viaf.org/viaf/29672719/" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Gauti Kristmannsson (born 1960)">Gauti Kristmannsson</a>
</div> <h2>Appendix</h2>
<h3>Sources</h3>
Blackwell, Thomas: An Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer, 3rd ed., London 1757, original from New York Public Library, digitized by Google. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081606117" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="An Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer">http://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081606117</a> [2021-07-26]
Blackwell, Thomas: Untersuchung &#252;ber Homers Leben und Schriften: Aus dem Englischen des Blackwells &#252;bersetzt von Johann Heinrich Vo&#223;, Leipzig 1776, ed. by the Munich Digitization Center. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10233539-3" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Untersuchung &#252;ber Homers Leben und Schriften">http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10233539-3</a> [2021-07-26]
Blair, Hugh: A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, the Son of Fingal, London 1763, digitized by the National Library of Scotland. URL: <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/criticaldisserta01blai" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://www.archive.org/details/criticaldisserta01blai</a> [2021-07-26]
Denis, Michael [pseudonym Sined]: Ossian und Sineds Lieder, Wien 1791&#8211;1792, vol. 1&#8211;6, ed. by the Austrian National Library. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://data.onb.ac.at/ABO/%2BZ170976608" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Ossian und Sineds Lieder">http://data.onb.ac.at/ABO/%2BZ170976608</a> [2021-07-26]
Gaskill, Howard (ed.): Ossian Revisited, Edinburgh 1991.
Gaskill, Howard (ed.): The Poems of Ossian and Related Works, Edinburgh 1996.
Gaskill, Howard (ed.): The Reception of Ossian in Europe, London 2004.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, Leipzig 1774, ed. by the Munich Digitization Center- URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn%3Anbn%3Ade%3Abvb%3A12-bsb00070246-2" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Die Leiden des jungen Werthers">http://nbn-resolving.de/urn%3Anbn%3Ade%3Abvb%3A12-bsb00070246-2</a> [2021-07-26]
Herder, Johann Gottfried: Von deutscher Art und Kunst: Einige fliegende Bl&#228;tter, Hamburg 1773, in: Deutsches Textarchiv. URL: <a href="http://www.nbn-resolving.org/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-200905199241" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://www.nbn-resolving.org/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:kobv:b4-20090519924</a>1 [2021-07-26]
Herder, Johann Gottfried: V. Homer und Ossian, in: Die Horen 10 (1795), ed. by the Friedrich Schiller Archiv, Weimar.
Herder, Johann Gottfried et al.: Von deutscher Art und Kunst: Einige fliegende Bl&#228;tter, ed. by Hans Dietrich Irmscher, Stuttgart 1988.
Mackenzie, Henry et al.: Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland, Appointed to Inquire into the Nature and Authenticity of the Poems of Ossian: With a Copious Appendix, Edinburgh 1805, digitised by the National Library of Scotland. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://www.archive.org/details/reportofcommitte02high" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Report of the Committee of the Highland Society of Scotland">http://www.archive.org/details/reportofcommitte02high </a>[2021-07-26]
Macpherson, James: Fingal, in: James Macpherson: Fingal: An Ancient Epic Poem, in Six Books: Together with Several other Poems, Composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, London 1762, pp. 1&#8211;85, ed. by the Munich Digitization Center. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb10007516_00039.html" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fingal">http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb10007516_00039.html</a> [2021-07-26]
Macpherson, James: Fingal: An Ancient Epic Poem, in Six Books: Together with Several other Poems, Composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, London 1762, ed. by the Munich Digitization Center. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10007516-7" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fingal">http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10007516-7</a> [2021-07-26]
Macpherson, James: Fragments of Ancient Poetry (1760), in: Howard Gaskill (ed.): The Poems of Ossian and Related Works, Edinburgh 1996, pp. 1&#8211;2.
Macpherson, James: Fragments of Ancient Poetry Collected in the Highlands of Scotland, and Translated from the Galic or Erse Language, Edinburgh 1760, original from the Oxford University, digitized by Google. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://www.archive.org/details/fragmentsancien00fraggoog" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Fragments of Ancient Poetry">http://www.archive.org/details/fragmentsancien00fraggoog</a> [2021-07-26]
Macpherson, James: Oeuvres d'Ossian, translated and ed. by Samuel Baudry, Paris 2013.
Macpherson, James: Poesie di Ossian, figlio di Fingal, antico poeta celtico, ultimamente scoperte, e tradotte in prosa inglese da Jacopo Macpherson, e da quella trasportate in verso Italiano dall' Ab. Melchior Cesarotti, con varie annotazioni de' due traduttori, Padova 1763, original from the National Library of Scotland, digitized by the Internet Archive. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://archive.org/details/poesiediossianfi11macp" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Poesie di Ossian">http://archive.org/details/poesiediossianfi11macp</a> [2021-07-26]
Macpherson, James: Temora, in: James Macpherson: Fingal: An Ancient Epic Poem, in Six Books: Together with Several other Poems, Composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, London 1762, pp. 172&#8211;192, ed. by the Munich Digitization Center. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb10007516_00210.html" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Temora">http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb10007516_00210.html </a>[2021-07-26]
Percy, Thomas (ed.): Five Pieces of Runic Poetry Translated from the Islandic Language: Egill's Ode og Regner's Ode, London 1763, original from the library of Oxford University, digitized by Google. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://www.archive.org/details/fivepiecesrunic00norwgoog" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Five Pieces of Runic Poetry">http://www.archive.org/details/fivepiecesrunic00norwgoog</a> [2021-07-26]
Percy, Thomas (ed.): Reliques of Ancient English Poetry: Consisting of Old Heroic Ballads, Songs, and Other Pieces of Our Earlier Poets, (Chiefly of the Lyric Kind.): Together with some Few of Later Date, vol. 1&#8211;3, London 1765.
Sta&#235;l-Holstein, Anne Louise Germaine de: De l'Allemagne, Paris 1810, vol. 1&#8211;3, ed. by the Biblioth&#232;que nationale de France, d&#233;partement R&#233;serve des livres rares. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86232882/f5.image" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="De l'Allemagne">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86232882/f5.image </a>(vol. 1) / <a data-class="external-link" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8623289g/f5.image" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="De l'Allemagne">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8623289g/f5.image</a> (vol. 2) / <a data-class="external-link" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86232904/f5.image" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="De l'Allemagne">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86232904/f5.image</a> (vol. 3) [2021-07-26]
Wolf, Friedrich August: Prolegomena ad Homerum, Sive de Operum Homericorum prisca et genuina forma variisque mutationibus et probabili ratione emendandi, Halis 1795, ed. by the Munich Digitization Center. URL: <a data-class="external-link" href="http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/resolve/display/bsb10912217.html" rel="noopener" target="_blank" title="Prolegomena ad Homerum">http://reader.digitale-sammlungen.de/resolve/display/bsb10912217.html</a> [2021-07-26]
<h3>Literature</h3>
B&#228;r, Gerald et al. (ed.): Ossian and National Epic, Frankfurt am Main 2012.
Barnaby, Paul: Timeline: European Reception of Ossian, in: Howard Gaskill (ed.): The Reception of Ossian in Europe, London 2004, pp. xxi&#8211;lxviii.
Brown, Terence (ed.): Celticism, Amsterdam et al. 1996.
Celenza, Anna H. Harwell: Efterklange af Ossian: The Reception of James Macpherson's Poems of Ossian in Denmark's Literature, Art, and Music, in: Scandinavian Studies 70, 3 (1998), pp. 359&#8211;396. URL:&#160;<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40920065" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/40920065</a> [2021-08-02]
Curley, Thomas M.: Samuel Johnson, the Ossian Fraud, and the Celtic Revival in Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge et al. 2009. URL:&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511576461" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511576461</a> [2021-08-02]
Damrosch, David: What is world literature?, Princeton, NJ et al. 2003. URL:&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv301fqn" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv301fqn</a> [2021-08-02]
Gaskill, Howard: Introduction: "Genuine Poetry ... like Gold", in: Howard Gaskill (ed.): The Reception of Ossian in Europe, London 2004, pp. 1&#8211;20.
Gaskill, Howard: What did James Macpherson really leave on Display at his Publisher's Shop in 1762?, in: Scottish Gaelic Studies 16 (1990), pp. 67&#8211;89. URL:&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.3726/b17587" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3726/b17587</a> [2021-08-02]
Gaskill, Howard: Herder, Ossian and the Celtic, in: Terence Brown (ed.): Celticism, Amsterdam et al. 1996, pp. 257&#8211;272.
Gaskill, Howard: The Homer of the North, in: Interfaces 27 (2007&#8211;2008), pp. 13&#8211;24.
Kristmannsson, Gauti: Literary Diplomacy, vol. 1&#8211;2, Frankfurt am Main et al. 2005.
Kristmannsson, Gauti: The Nordic Turn in German Literature, in: Eleoma Joshua et al (ed.): Edinburgh German Yearbook, Rochester, NY 2007, vol. 1: Cultural Exchange in German Literature, pp. 63&#8211;73.
Hofmann, Werner et al.: Ossian und die Kunst um 1800: Ausstellung Hamburger Kunsthalle, 09.05.&#8211;23.06.1974, Hamburg 1974.
Jahrm&#228;rker, Manuela: Ossian: Eine Figur und eine Idee des Europ&#228;ischen Musiktheaters um 1800, K&#246;ln 1993.
Macdonald, Murdo: Ossian and Art: Scotland into Europe via Rome, in: Howard Gaskill (ed.): The Reception of Ossian in Europe, London 2004, pp. 393&#8211;404.
Mitchell, Sebastian: Celtic Postmodernism: Ossian and Contemporary Art, in: Translation and Literature 22, 3 (2013), pp. 401&#8211;435. URL:&#160;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/tal.2013.0130" rel="noopener" target="_blank">http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/tal.2013.0130</a> [2021-08-02]
&#211; Dochartaigh, Caitr&#237;ona: Goethe's Translation from the Gaelic "Ossian", in: Howard Gaskill (ed.): The Reception of Ossian in Europe, London, 2004, pp. 156&#8211;175.
Roters, Eberhard: Jenseits von Arkadien: Die romantische Landschaft, K&#246;ln 1995.
Schmidt, Wolf Gerhard et al. (ed.): 'Homer des Nordens' und 'Mutter der Romantik', Berlin et al. 2003&#8211;2004, vol. 1&#8211;4. URL: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110926569" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110926569 </a>(vol. 1/ 2) /&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110927399" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110927399</a> (vol. 3) /&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110893991" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110893991</a> (vol. 4) [2021-08-02]
Sher, Richard B.: Those Scotch Imposters and their Cabal: Ossian and the Scottish Enlightenment, in: Man and Nature: Proceedings of the Canadian Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies 1 (1982), pp. 55&#8211;63. URL:&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.7202/1011791ar" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.7202/1011791ar</a> [2021-08-02]
Smith, Christopher: Ossian in Music, in: Howard Gaskill (ed.): The Reception of Ossian in Europe, London 2004, pp. 375&#8211;392.
Stafford, Fiona: The Sublime Savage: James Macpherson and the Poems of Ossian, Edinburgh 1988.
Stafford, Fiona: Dr. Johnson and the Ruffian: New Evidence in the Dispute between Samuel Johnson and James Macpherson, in: Notes and Queries 36, 1 (1989), pp. 70&#8211;77. URL:&#160;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/nq/36-1-70" rel="noopener" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093/nq/36-1-70</a> [2021-08-02]
Stafford, Fiona: Introduction: The Ossianic Poems of James Macpherson, in: Howard Gaskill (ed.): The Poems of Ossian and Related Works, Edinburgh 1996, pp. 1&#8211;18.
Tieghem, Paul van: Ossian en France, Paris 1917.
Tillyard, Eustace Mandeville Wetenhall: The English Epic and its Background, London 1954.
Thomson, Derick S.: The Gaelic Sources of MacPherson's "Ossian", Aberdeen 1952.
Tombo, Rudolf: Ossian in Germany: Bibliography, General Survey, Ossian's Influence upon Klopstock and the Bards, New York 1901, reprint 1966, ed. by Projekt Gutenberg.
Wessel, Matthias: Die Ossian-Dichtung in der Musikalischen Komposition, Laaber 1994 (Publikationen der Hochschule f&#252;r Musik und Theater Hannover 6).
<h3>Notes</h3>
<ol id="InsertNote_NoteList" type="1">
<li id="InsertNoteID_0"><a href="#InsertNoteID_0_marker1">^</a> Macpherson, Fragments 1760.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_1"><a href="#InsertNoteID_1_marker2">^</a> Stafford, The Sublime Savage 1988 is the best recent introduction to Macpherson and his work.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_2"><a href="#InsertNoteID_2_marker3">^</a> Cf. Gaskill, Introduction 2004; Macpherson, Fingal 1762.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_3"><a href="#InsertNoteID_3_marker4">^</a> Macpherson, Temora 1762.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_4"><a href="#InsertNoteID_4_marker5">^</a> Cf. Kristmannsson, Literary Diplomacy 2005, vol. 1, pp. 97&#8211;108.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_5"><a href="#InsertNoteID_5_marker6">^</a> Cf. Sher, Those Scotch Imposters 1982.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_6"><a href="#InsertNoteID_6_marker7">^</a> Macpherson is still being accused of fraud, cf. Curley, Samuel Johnson 2009.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_7"><a href="#InsertNoteID_7_marker8">^</a> Cf. Stafford, Dr. Johnson 1989.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_8"><a href="#InsertNoteID_8_marker9">^</a> Cf. Kristmannsson, The Nordic Turn 2007.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_9"><a href="#InsertNoteID_9_marker10">^</a> Herder, Von deutscher Art 1773, pp. 3&#8211;70.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_10"><a href="#InsertNoteID_10_marker11">^</a> Herder, Von deutscher Art 1773, pp. 71&#8211;118.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_11"><a href="#InsertNoteID_11_marker12">^</a> iHerder, Von deutscher Art 1773, pp. 119&#8211;136.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_12"><a href="#InsertNoteID_12_marker13">^</a> Cf. Kristmannsson, Literary Diplomacy 2005, part. 1, pp. 90&#8211;94.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_13"><a href="#InsertNoteID_13_marker14">^</a> Mackenzie, Report 1805.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_14"><a href="#InsertNoteID_14_marker15">^</a> Gaskill, Macpherson 1990.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_15"><a href="#InsertNoteID_15_marker16">^</a> Goethe, Die Leiden des jungen Werthers 1774, pp. 192&#8211;206.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_16"><a href="#InsertNoteID_16_marker17">^</a> Cf. &#211; Dochartaigh, Goethe's Translation 2004.<cite> </cite></li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_17"><a href="#InsertNoteID_17_marker18">^</a> Cf. Kristmannsson, Literary Diplomacy 2005, vol. 1, pp. 121&#8211;194.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_18"><a href="#InsertNoteID_18_marker19">^</a> Percy, Reliques of Ancient English Poetry 1765, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_19"><a href="#InsertNoteID_19_marker20">^</a> Macpherson, Poesie di Ossian 1763.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_20"><a href="#InsertNoteID_20_marker21">^</a> Denis, Ossian und Sineds Lieder 1791&#8211;1792, vol. 1&#8211;6.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_21"><a href="#InsertNoteID_21_marker22">^</a> Even in the 21st century, when translations or new editions of previous translations are fewer and farther between, some ones are still appearing, such as Samuel Baudry's recent French translation James Macpherson: Oeuvres d'Ossian (2013). The same applies to the critical debate and creative reception. Indeed, one of the hallmarks of The Poems of Ossian seems to be that they are truly transnational, the wide range of reception into a great number of languages and their role within the respective national literatures as an inspiring source for the creation of an, as it were, indigenous native literature in the respective cultures of reception is simply fascinating from a transnational point of view.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_22"><a href="#InsertNoteID_22_marker23">^</a> This paradigm shift has been ignored to a large extent by European academics for almost a century, especially in Britain, but major studies have been published all the same. Paul van Tieghem's (1871&#8211;1948) Ossian en France went into several editions between 1917 and 1967 in three languages, according to the website "WorldCat Identities"; Rudolf Tombo (1875&#8211;1914) published a study, Ossian in Germany, in 1901 and the most recent work on that issue is Wolf Gerhardt Schmidt's (birth 1973) four-volume study, 'Homer des Nordens' und 'Mutter der Romantik', on the German reception of Ossian which underlines the massive influence in Germany alone. In Britain and the U.S. the debate has increased greatly after Fiona Stafford's The Sublime Savage (1988) and Howard Gaskill's Ossian Revisited (1991).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_23"><a href="#InsertNoteID_23_marker24">^</a> According to David Damrosch (birth 1953) the term "world literature" may be defined as follows: "My claim is that world literature is not an infinite, ungraspable canon of works but rather a mode of circulation and of reading, a mode that is applicable to individual works as to bodies of material, available for reading established classics and new discoveries alike." (Damrosch, World Literature 2003, p. 5) The transnational literary reception of The Poems of Ossian would certainly suffice to categorise them as "world literature", but their circulation in other art forms &#8211; also a "mode of reading" &#8211; underlines this claim even more..</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_24"><a href="#InsertNoteID_24_marker25">^</a> Cf. Hofmann, Ossian und die Kunst 1974, p. 55.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_25"><a href="#InsertNoteID_25_marker26">^</a> Apart from Blair, (A Critical Dissertation 1763), Goethe in his Werther juxtaposed Homer and Ossian; Herder wrote an essay on the subject for Schiller's and Goethe's Die Horen in 1795 (Herder, Homer und Ossian 1795) and Mme de Sta&#235;l also made the comparison in her groundbreaking work on German Romanticism (De l'Allemagne 1810, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3).</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_26"><a href="#InsertNoteID_26_marker27">^</a> Cf. Hofmann, Ossian und die Kunst 1974, pp. 55&#8211;62.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_27"><a href="#InsertNoteID_27_marker28">^</a> Cf. Roters, Jenseits von Arkadien 1995, p. 14.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_28"><a href="#InsertNoteID_28_marker29">^</a> Cf. Celenza, Efterklange af Ossian 1998, pp. 370&#8211;382.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_29"><a href="#InsertNoteID_29_marker30">^</a> The list is too long to be recapitulated here in detail, but for those interested in a good overview, albeit in German, Ossian und die Kunst um 1800, a catalogue for a major exhibition in Hamburg in 1974, and Roters's Jenseits von Arkadien may be recommended.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_30"><a href="#InsertNoteID_30_marker31">^</a> Cf. Hofmann, Ossian und die Kunst 1974, p. 63.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_31"><a href="#InsertNoteID_31_marker32">^</a> Cf. Roters, Jenseits von Arkadien 1995, p. 28.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_32"><a href="#InsertNoteID_32_marker33">^</a> Cf. Hofmann, Ossian und die Kunst 1974, p. 127.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_33"><a href="#InsertNoteID_33_marker34">^</a> Cf. Macdonald, Ossian and Art 2004.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_34"><a href="#InsertNoteID_34_marker35">^</a> Mitchell, Celtic Postmodernism 2013, p. 327.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_35"><a href="#InsertNoteID_35_marker36">^</a> Two doctoral dissertations in German from the 1990s, one by Manuela Jahrm&#228;rker (birth 1957) and another by Matthias Wessel provide long lists of composers who from the 1760s till the 1940s used the Ossianic poetry for their compositions. The lists complement each other nicely since Jahrm&#228;rker uses a chronological order, whereas Wessel uses an alphabetical one. Wessel notes that he was able to find over 200 compositions of various provenance based on the Ossianic corpus in one way or another (cf. Wessel, Die Ossian Dichtung 1994, p. 2). Wessel (Wessel, Die Ossian Dichtung 1994, p. 13) also notes that the composers often referred to the translations in their own language rather than the original English translation and that these were often adaptations of the English text. This underlines the importance of translation for a text's transnational circulation and impact.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_36"><a href="#InsertNoteID_36_marker37">^</a> Roters, Jenseits von Arkadien 1995, p. 16; cf. also Smith, Ossian in Music 2004, p. 379.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_37"><a href="#InsertNoteID_37_marker38">^</a> Cf. Celenza, Efterklange af Ossian 1998, p. 389.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_38"><a href="#InsertNoteID_38_marker39">^</a> Cf. Gaskill, Introduction 2004; cf. also Smith, Ossian in Music 2004.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_39"><a href="#InsertNoteID_39_marker40">^</a> Johann Heinrich Voss (1751&#8211;1826),the greatest German translators of Homer, also adapted this work, which was published in 1776: Blackwell, Untersuchung 1776. A French translation by Jean Nicolas Quatrem&#232;re-Roissy (1754&#8211;1834) appeared in 1798.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_40"><a href="#InsertNoteID_40_marker41">^</a> Blackwell, An Enquiry 1757, p. 2, italics in the original.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_41"><a href="#InsertNoteID_41_marker42">^</a> Blackwell, An Enquiry 1757, p. 54, italics in original.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_42"><a href="#InsertNoteID_42_marker43">^</a> James Macpherson was educated in Aberdeen (1753&#8211;1756), first at King's College and then Marischal College, at which Thomas Blackwell was principal at the time.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_43"><a href="#InsertNoteID_43_marker44">^</a> Cf. Gaskill, The Homer of the North 2007&#8211;2008.</li>
<li id="InsertNoteID_44"><a href="#InsertNoteID_44_marker45">^</a> Gaskill, The Poems of Ossian and Related Works 1996, offers a modern edition of Ossian and includes Blair, A Critical Dissertation 1763.</li>
</ol>
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			&#220;bersetzt von:Translated by: 
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			<h3 id="indices">Indices</h3>
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			DDC: <a href="/search?DDC=410&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 410</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=410">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=410">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a><a href="/search?DDC=700&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 700</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=700">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=700">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a><a href="/search?DDC=820&amp;portal_type=Site&amp;Title=freigabe" class="ddc"> 820</a> <a class="de" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=820">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a> <a class="en" href="http://deweysearchde.pansoft.de/webdeweysearch/executeSearch.html?query=820">[Info <img class="external_link_icon" src="/_theme/img/external_link_icon.png" alt="external link"> ]</a>
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		<h3>ZitierempfehlungCitation</h3>
		
			Kristmannsson, Gauti: Ossian, the European National Epic (1760-1810), in:
			Europ&#228;ische Geschichte Online (EGO),
			hg. vom Leibniz-Institut f&#252;r Europ&#228;ische Geschichte (IEG), Mainz 
			European History Online (EGO),
			published by the Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG), Mainz 
			2015-11-09.
			URL: <a id="primaryurl" href="">https://www.ieg-ego.eu/kristmannssong-2015-en</a>
			URN: <a id="primaryurn" href="">urn:nbn:de:0159-2015103003</a> [JJJJ-MM-TT][YYYY-MM-DD].
		
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